Observational Research

• Observational research


  The viewing and recording of a predetermined set of behaviors
• Observational research


  • Does NOT incorporate external validity
  • Does NOT incorporate ecological validity
• External validity


  The extent to which study findings can be generalized outside the data collection setting to other persons, in other places, at other times
• Ecological validity


  The degree to which the research situation re-creates the psychological experiences that participants would have in real life
• Coding system


  A set of rules to help guide how the researcher classifies and records the behaviors under observation
• Duration recording


  Recording the length of time a target behavior occurs
• Frequency-count recording


  Recording each time a target behavior occurs
• Observation schedule


  A hard-copy document, or electronic form, on which observers note the particulars of the behavior or phenomenon they are observing
• Inter-observer reliability


  The level of agreement between two observers coding the same phenomenon, also known as inter-rater reliability
• Intra-observer reliability


  The extent to which a SINGLE observer consistently codes a phenomenon
• Reliability goal: acceptable agreement
• Pilot testing


  A trial run used to test and refine the design, methods, and instruments of a study prior to carrying out the actual research
• Continuous recording


  A procedural method for recording observations that involves recording all the behavior of a target individual during a specified observation period
• Interval recording


  A procedural method that involves dividing the observation time into smaller intervals and recording the occurrence or non-occurrence of the target behavior during each interval
• Contrived observation


  Artificially introducing a variable of interest and unobtrusively observing the outcome
• Descriptive statistics


  Statistics that describe or summarize quantitative information
• Categorical variable


  A variable with a finite number of different values
• Continuous variable


  A variable with an infinite number of different values between two given points
• Frequency distribution


  A graphical depiction of the distribution of scores in a data set
• Normal distribution


  • Represents the ideal distribution of scores in a population
  • Symmetrical
  • Basis of statistical testing
• Kurtosis


  Refers to the distribution of scores relative to the middle

  
• Skewed distribution


  • Only one pronounced tail
  • Measure of the degree of asymmetry
• Mode


  The most frequently occurring score in a distribution
• Bimodal


  Having two modes, more difficult to analyze
• Median


  The score at the 50th percentile (50% of the scores at or below the median)
• Calculating the median


  1. For small N, discrete data with odd number of scores: median is the middle score

  2. For small N, discrete data with even number of scores: median is the halfway point between the 2 middle scores
• Mean


  • The most commonly used measure of central tendency
  • Refers to the score located at the mathematical centre of a distribution
• Measures of variability


  Describes the extent to which scores in a distribution differs from each other
• Range


  The distance between the 2 most extreme scores in a distribution
• Variance and standard deviation


  • Measures to describe differences between scores
  • Based on the normal distribution (with respect to the mean)
• Score deviation


  The "distance" between an individual score and a sample mean
• Calculating unbiased estimate of population variability

  Use N-1 degrees of freedom
• Standard deviation and area

  68% of the scores in a distribution are within of + 1SX of the mean
• Coefficient of variation


  • Used for interval or ratio data
  • Variation as a proportion of the mean
  • Unitless - independent of the units of measurement
• Normal distribution and z-score

  • Assess relative position of each unit in the sample
  • Eliminates unit of measurement
• Percentages and proportions


  Frequency - counting the number of times a score occurs
• Calculating percentage


  Percentage = (f/n) x 100%
• Calculating proportion


  Proportion = f/n
• Ratios


  Compares the relative sizes of categories, i.e., part to part
• Rates


  Number of actual occurrences of some phenomenon divided by the number of possible occurrences per some unit of time