USA & Conflicts at home

• The North of America

  • In the early 1950s Black Americans faced discrimination and segregation solely because of their race.
  • In the North, this was by discrimination in jobs, education and housing. 
  • Black people were limited to having badly paid jobs, so they could only afford to live in the poorest areas, called ghettos.
• The South of America

  • In the South, segregation was enforced by Jim Crow laws.
  • These separated black and white people in all aspects of life such as education, housing and transport.
  • Black people could be arrested if they didn’t follow these laws.
  • Southern states were allowed to enforce these laws because states could have their own laws, separate from federal (national) laws.
• Voting Rights of Black Americans in the Early 1950s


  Voting rights were gradually introduced for Black Americans, however white people prevented black people from voting through several methods.
• • White people prevented black people from voting as they did not see them as equal citizens.
  • This was done through several methods:
  • Employers threatening to sack workers who tried to vote.
  • States allowing political parties to ‘choose’ their members.
  • States introducing difficult literacy tests for black people.
• Voting prevention methods cont.

  • Gangs beating up black voters outside polling stations.
  • Some black people who went to court to defend their right to vote were even murdered
• NAACP

  The NAACP on fighting for civil rights in law courts to overthrow segregation. 

  • They argued against the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson ruling of ‘separate but equal’.
  • The ruling allowed segregation as long as both segregated facilities were of equal standard.
• NAACP cont.

  • They tried to prove facilities were not equal, and also argued that separate but equal facilities did not mean equal opportunity. 
  • They won nearly every case they argued in the 1950s.
  • They were more successful in the North where they had white support as legal institutions were more likely to side with them.
• CORE

  • Used non-violent direct action such as boycotts and sit-ins to protest segregation.
  • Also trained others in non-violent methods, spreading their impact further
  • They had fewer members than the NAACP.
  • Worked mainly in the North, and most of their members at first were white, middle class people.
• Universities

  • Universities allowed Civil Rights Campaigners in the North to meet and organise protests.
  • In the South, middle class black people used their education and networks to help organise the movement.
• Church communities

  • Churches were the centre of the Southern community, so black church leaders were often also civil rights leaders. 
  • They typically had access to higher education and were respected in their communities.
  • Black church leaders organised peaceful protests and speeches. 
  • They could negotiate with white politicians because of their respected status.
• Brown vs. Topeka, 1954


  • NAACP combined five cases that had failed to argue against school desegregation, and took them to the Supreme Court in ‘Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas’.
  • They argued that even with equal provision and facilities, being segregated from white students made black children feel inferior.
  • They argued that 'separate but equal' therefore broke the 14th Amendmen
• The judges

  • During the case, a pro-segregation judge died and was replaced with an anti-segregation judge called Earl Warren who became Chief Justice, meaning he led the Supreme Court.
• The verdict of Brown v. Topeka

  • On 17th May 1954, the Supreme Court said schools ruled Plessy unconstitutional and schools were told to desegregate. 
  • However, it didn’t say when they had to do this by, so schools could avoid desegregating.
  • In May 1955 Brown II ruled that all states should make a ‘prompt and reasonable start’ on desegregation, but still didn’t give a deadline.
• The Immediate and Long-Term Significance of Brown v. Topeka

  Brown raised awareness and started the legal battle for Civil Rights, however (especially in the Deep South) many blacks felt worse off and KKK membership grew.

  • Brown raised awareness and started the legal battle for Civil Rights. 
  • By 1957, 723 school districts had desegregated, and inspired desegregation in other areas of life.
• Which civil rights organisation took the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas to court in 1954 over school segregation?

  NAACP
• Mississippi

  • The White Citizens Council was set up in Mississippi to preserve segregation. 
  • KKK membership grew and there were protests outside schools.
• Negative effects

  • Many blacks felt worse off afterwards because of the violence and good black schools closing. 
  • Black students faced threats and bullying.
  • Black teachers either lost their jobs or faced harassment from white pupils.
• Little Rock High, 1957


  When Little Rock in Arkansas desegregated Governor Faubus ordered state troops to stop the black students entering. This was reported internationally and sparked outrage.
• Little Rock

  • Little Rock in Arkansas already had some desegregated facilities, and after Brown, plans were made to desegregate the high school. 
  • 75 black students applied, and the school chose the top 25.
  • However, due to threats and violence from racist white people, only nine students were still willing to attend in September 1957
• Elizabeth Eckford

  • Governor Faubus of Arkansas ordered 250 state troops to stop the black students entering, and organised huge protests outside the gates.
  • The black students were advised to miss the first day, and arrive together the next day on an NAACP organised bus. 
  • However, Elizabeth Eckford didn’t get the message and arrived alone to face the white mob screaming “lynch her”.
  • Lynching is an execution without a trial that is carried out by a mob.
  • The state troopers refused to help her and she fled.
• International Outrage

  • 250 reporters showed the events in national newspapers, causing huge outrage in the USA and abroad.
  • International embarrassment caused President Eisenhower to order the removal of the state troops and sign a Presidential Order to send 1000 federal troops to protect the Little Rock Nine, despite his personal opposition to legally enforcing desegregation.
• Federal Protection

  • Federal troops had to protect the Little Rock Nine for the rest of the school year, but could not stop the bullying and couldn’t protect their homes and families.
  • Governor Faubus closed every school in Little Rock for the next academic year, but he was forced to re-open and integrate them in September 1959
• Massive resistance

  • Massive resistance to desegregation was made illegal in 1959, but other state governments used loopholes to avoid desegregation:
  • Only desegregating one school year at a time.
  • Only accepting a few black pupils in each school.
  • Only desegregating a few schools in the area but keeping the rest segregated.
  • Introducing testing that was rigged against black pupils.
  • Using the excuse of riots outside schools to keep black pupils out ‘for their own protection’.
• What laws enforced segregation in the South?

  Jim Crow Laws
• What ruling did the NAACP argue against?

  1896, Plessy v. Ferguson ruling of ‘separate but equal’
• How many cases did the NAACP combine to take to the Supreme Court in 'Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas'?

  five
• What was the name of the anti-segregation judge who became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court during 'Brown v. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas'?

  Earl Warren
• How many school districts had desegregated by 1957?

  723 school districts
• Which governor ordered 250 state troops to stop black students from entering Little Rock school?

  Governor Faubus