L2 P2

• A highly controversial interpretation by _____________ argues that the Greeks borrowed many of their concepts about government, philosophy, the arts, sciences, and medicine from ancient Egypt

  Martin Bernal
• While historians continue to debate the matter, tentative findings indicate that Egyptian-Greek contacts, particularly at _______________, introduced the Greeks to Egyptian knowledge and art.

  Crete
• Along with the Enlightenment tradition discussed later the chapter, American education, like Western culture, is rooted in the ______________ (The Christian dimension is discussed in the sections on the medieval and reformation periods in this chapter.)

  Judeo Christian tradition
• Moses, who led the Jewish people from bondage in Egypt to the promised land in __________, received divine revelations on Mount Sinai. These revelations form an essential part of the "_____," the sacred scripture taught and studied by Jews, from childhood on throughout their lives15 The written Torah includes the Five Books of Moses— Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.______________ These texts, as well as the books of the prophets and other scriptures, were most likely edited during the eleventh and twelfth centuries BCE. Based on the Torah, Jewish education stressed recitation and commentary on the sacred texts and the study of laws and their moral and ethical prescriptions and proscriptions.

  Judea

  Torah

  Genesis

  Exodus

  Leviticus

  Numbers

  Deuteronomy
• _____________ aimed at inculcating the young with their cultural tradition through a carefully designed process of transmitting religious beliefs and rituals from one generation to the next.

  Judaic education
• For children, Judaism's basic educational aims were to learn how to _______, to know and observe the ___________, and to identify with their people's______________. At first, as in most early societies, parents, responsible for their children's education, were the initial teachers.

  pray

  commandments

  special place in history
• Generations have thrilled to the dramatic suspense of ________________Appearing about 1200 BCE, Homer's epics helped Greeks define themselves and their culture.

  Homer's epic poems

  the Iliad and the Odyssey
• Like ritual ceremonies in preliterate societies, Homer's dramatic portrayal of the Greek warriors' battles against the Trojans served important educational purposes:

  (1) it preserved the culture by transmitting it from adults to the young;

  
  

  (2) it cultivated Greek cultural identity based on mythic and historical origins; and

  
  

  (3) it shaped the character of the young Ulysses, Achilles, and other warriors dramatically personified life's heroic dimensions.
• Athens and Sparta defined citizenship and civic responsibilities and rights differently. Athens, a democracy, emphasized its citizens' shared public responsibility. Sparta, Athens' chief rival, was an authoritarian military dictatorship.

  Sparta had a strictly state-controlled educational system in which all its male citizens were trained to be soldiers. Indeed, the Spartan child was regarded as the state's property.
• believed that a free man needed a liberal education to perform his civic duties as well as to develop personally.

  Athenians
• The Athenians believed that slaves did not need the liberal education appropriate for free men. Contemporary debates between proponents of vocational and liberal education go back to the Athenian distinction between a liberal education for free people and vocational training for slaves.

  A liberal education came to be defined as dealing with the arts, humanities, and sciences, while a vocational education dealt with learning skills related to specific practical work.
• The life and career of the poetess_________ (630-572 BCE) sharply contrasted with the sequestered education of most Greek women. An early proponent of women's freedom, Sappho's verses tell of love between women. She believed that women should be educated for their own personal self-development rather than for their traditionally ascribed roles as future wives and mothers. She founded a women's school in Mytilene, on the island of Lesbos, where she taught young aristocratic women the cult rituals related to worship of Aphrodite as well as cultural and decorative arts and skills, such as singing, dancing, playing the lyre, writing poetry, and the practice of etiquette.

  Sappho
• _________a group of educators, designed a new approach to teaching that responded to this change.Their method differed from the older _______________ education that relied on stories and models from the past and from the philosophical approach that relied on abstract and highly generalized thinking about the nature of reality.

  SOPHISTS

  HOMERIC
• The Sophists claimed that they could educate their students to win public debates by teaching them:

  (1) how to use crowd psychology to know what would appeal to an audience;

  
  

  (2) how to organize a persuasive and convincing argument; and

  
  

  (3) skill in public speaking—knowing what words, examples, and lines of reasoning to use to win the debate or the case.
• Critics of the Sophists, such as_________________-, however, accused them of teaching students to argue for any side of an issue in order to win the case rather than being committed to the truth.

  Socrates and Plato
• Protagoras (485-414 BCE), a prominent Sophist, devised a highly effective fivestep teaching strategy.

  (1) delivered an outstanding speech so that students knew their teacher could actually do what he taught; this speech also gave them a model to imitate. Then Protagoras had the students

  (2) examine the great speeches of famous orators to enlarge their repertoire of possible models;

  (3) study the key subjects of logic, grammar, and rhetoric; and

  (4) deliver practice orations, which he assessed to provide feedback to students. Finally,

  (5) the student orators delivered public speeches. Protagoras's method resembles present-day preservice teacher-education programs,
• _____________- all challenged the Sophists' relativism and insisted on the existence of enduring truths that all people must know. Isocrates, a teacher of oratory, tried to resolve the controversy by saying that students and citizens need to know not only what is true but also how to apply it to the situations in which they live.

  Philosophical Roots of Education

  Socrates

  PLATO

  Aristotle
• Socrates: Education by ______________Unlike the Sophists, who claimed that knowledge depended on the situations in which people used it, Socrates (469-399 BCE) believed that knowledge was based on what was true universally—at all places and times.

  Self-Examination
• _______Socrates believed, was far superior to the Sophists' technical training. Socrates' concept of the teacher differed from that of the Sophists. He did not believe that knowledge or wisdom could be transmitted from a teacher to a student because he believed the concepts of true knowledge were present, but buried, within the person's mind. A truly liberal education would stimulate learners to discover ideas by bringing to consciousness the truth that was latent in their minds.

  Moral excellence,
• As a teacher, Socrates asked leading questions that stimulated students to think deeply about the meaning of life, truth, and justice. In answering these questions, students engaged in rigorous discussion, or dialogue, in which they clarified, criticized, and reconstructed their basic concepts. This rigorous dialogue approach, still known as the ___________, is challenging for both teachers and students.

  Socratic method