res exam

• Methodology


  The systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study. It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge.
• Methodology section is one of the parts of a research paper. This part is the core of your paper as it is a proof that you use the scientific method. Through this section, your study's validity is judged.
• Write the methodology section in the past tense. Include enough information so that others could repeat the experiment and evaluate whether the results are reproducible and the audience can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid.
• Reasons for explaining the methodology


  • Readers need to know the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure instead of others
  • Readers need to know that the collection or the generation of the data is valid in the field of study
  • Discuss the anticipated problems in the process of the data collection and the steps you took to prevent them
  • Present the rationale for why you chose specific experimental procedures
  • Provide sufficient information of the whole process so that others could replicate your study
• You can explain the methodology by giving a completely accurate description of the data collection equipment and the techniques, and explaining how you collected the data and analyzed them.
• Specific information to include in the methodology

  • Present the basic demographic profile of the sample population like age, gender and the racial composition of the sample
  • When animals are the subject of the study, list their species, weight, strain, sex, and age
  • Explain how you gathered the samples/subjects by answering these questions: Did you use any randomized techniques? How did you prepare the samples?
  • Explain how you made the measurements
  • What calculations did you make?
  • Describe the materials and equipment that you used in the research
  • Describe the statistical techniques that you used upon the data

  
• Order of the methods section

  • Describing the research design used in the study
  • Describing the samples/participants
  • Describing the materials you used in the study
  • Explaining how you prepared the materials
  • Explaining how you made the measurements and what calculations you performed
  • Stating which statistical tests did you use to analyze the data
• In qualitative studies, the aim of the sample is not to be representative of the population. The validity, meaningfulness and insights generated from such studies have more to do with the information richness of the cases selected, and the analytical qualities of the researcher than with the sample size.
• There are no rules for sample size in qualitative research. It depends on what one wants to know, the purpose of the study and practical factors.
• Qualitative researchers often use the redundancy criterion in sampling, which is when no new information is forthcoming from new sampled units, they stop collecting data.
• Qualitative researchers also use pragmatic criterion in defining sample size, considering the amount of time it costs to do and transcribe the interviews and the number of sub-groups from which one will select respondents.
• A qualitative study with 40 informants is a relatively large study. Generally qualitative comparative studies have at least 10 informants per group.
• Strategies to obtain a quality sample

  • Focus on the study- Make certain that the research question is feasible, and the study answers a question with clear variables
  • Find a Representative Sample- Determine the necessary addition and omission criteria for the study population such that findings can exactly generalize or identify results to the target group
  • Determine a recruitment strategy- Spell out a plan to identify and enroll study participants. This may entail screening or establishing criteria for number, location, and sampling method
  • Consult with the community to identify and recruit potential participants- Study existing infrastructure to discover venues of contracting suitable samples. Researchers must also be considerate and receptive to the recommendation of local experts and leaders
  • Avoid selection bias- It is also essential to recruit a fitting comparison group
  • Do not give up after the first attempt to recruit a potential participant- follow-up using various communication strategies, including personal, written, or electronic messaging. The importance of personal contact should not be undervalued
  • Allow for flexibility in the process- If existing recruitment strategies are resulting in inadequate enrollment of participants or modifications are made in criteria of participants, the solution may be to change the sampling plan
• Nonprobability sampling


  Sampling techniques for which a person's (or event's or researcher's focus's) likelihood of being selected for membership in the sample is unknown. Representing the population is not the goal with nonprobability samples.

  
• Types of nonprobability samples

  • Purposive samples
  • Quota samples
  • Convenience samples
• Research Design


  Overall planning of the researcher which addresses research questions, including specifications for enhancing the study's integrity
• Research Design


  Also called blueprint of the study
• Research Design


  Provides the glue that holds the research parts together
• Purposive sample


  A researcher begins with a specific perspective in mind that he wishes to examine and then seeks out research participants who cover that full range of perspectives.
• Qualitative Research Design


  • Ethnography
  • Grounded Theory
  • Case Study
  • Phenomenological Research
  • Narrative Inquiry
• Ethnography


  • Commonly used in the field of social science
  • Aimed to explore cultural phenomena reflecting knowledge and meaning of a cultural group like historical formations, compositions, resettlements, social welfare characteristics, materiality, spirituality, and a people's heritage
  • Essential to form an understanding of the human condition of the population being studied so as to impact the study
• Snowball sampling


  Qualitative researchers rely on this technique to identify study participants. A researcher might know of one or two people he would like to include in his study but then relies on those initial participants to help identify additional study participants.
• Grounded Theory


  • Develop theories surrounding phenomena grounded in observation
  • Research starts with the raising of multiplicative questions which helps to guide the research
  • As the researcher gathers data, there will be core theoretical concept/s that are identified
  • There'll be tentative linkages that are developed between the theoretical core concepts and the data
• Quota sampling


  A researcher identifies categories that are important to the study and for which there is likely to be some variation. Subgroups are created based on each category and the researcher decides how many people (or documents or whatever element happens to be the focus of the research) to include from each subgroup and collects data from that number for each subgroup.
• Case Study


  • The researcher explores a particular entity or phenomenon
  • The case is restricted by time and activity
  • Using field notes, interviews (formal and conversational), survey, or observation the case study gives a descriptive account of the entities' experiences and/ or behaviors kept by the researcher
• Phenomenological Research


  • The real meaning of human experience about a phenomenon as described by the participants is identified
  • The researcher is used as an instrument to interrelate and work together with participants using observation in the participant's natural environment
  • Helpful for collecting stories, narrative and anecdotes from individuals and groups of people
• Convenience sampling


  A method in which, for convenience sake, the study units that happen to be available at the time of data collection are selected in the sample.

  
• Narrative Inquiry


  • Used to obtain a deeper understanding in which individuals organize and develop meaning from events
  • The researcher is the tool for taking out the meaning and telling the experience/s of the event as observed by the researcher in the subjects' natural environment
  • The researcher makes use of field notes, interviews, autobiographies, and photos of the human experience and gives background to create a deeper, richer understanding for the audience
• Quantitative Research Design


  • Normative Survey
  • Evaluation Research
  • Content Analysis
• Normative Survey


  • Self-reported data are gathered from study participants to describe the populations in relation to the variables under investigation
  • Gathers primarily quantitative data such as what students usually do during their spare hours, how do they meet academic and nonacademic requirements, and what study habits they employ to improve their academic standing in the class
• Evaluation Research


  • Focuses on finding or developing a more suitable instrument or process that has been available
• Sample types


  • Purposive
  • Snowball
  • Quota
  • Convenience
• Content Analysis


  • Process of organizing and integrating narrative, qualitative data according to the emerging themes and concepts
  • Interprets the data by means of rational bases
• Experimental Research Design


  • Pre-experimental
  • Quasi-experimental
  • True experimental research
• Pre-experimental


  • Either a group or various dependent groups are observed for the effect of the application of an independent variable which is presumed to cause change
  • Simplest form of experimental research design and is treated with no control group
• Population


  The entire collection of a set of objects, people, or events, in a particular context. It is the entire group of persons or elements that is of interest to the researcher.
• Pre-experimental Designs


  • One-shot Case Study Research Design
  • One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
  • Static-group Comparison
• One-shot Case Study Research Design

  • Only one dependent group or variable is considered
• Sampling


  The process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population. Sampling provides and ensures the quality of data that will be collected and eventually used in understanding the phenomena and answering queries posed in the research study.

  
• One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design

  • Combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying out a test on a single group before the treatment is administered and after the treatment is administered