Unit 6

• Genetic engineering is act of taking a gene from one species and inputting it into another species.
• Animals used to be used in the genetic engineering of insulin, but we now use bacteria. This is because:

  1. Efficiency: Bacteria can multiply rapidly
  2. Easier and cheaper to maintain in large qualities compared to pigs
  3. Moral/Ethical/Religion reasons (self note: don't use this in the finals as I'm not sure this is an answer accepted by the board): people morally object to the use of animals (oftentimes, specific animals for example pigs being seen as impure in certain religions) but typically will not to the use of bacteria.
• The gene for making human insulin is extracted using RESTRICTION enzymes which break up the DNA, the length of DNA for insulin is seperated, then inserted into a BACTERIUM PLASMID (which is the ring of DNA in bacteria), RESTRICTION enzymes are used to CUT the plasmid and LIGASE enzymes are used to SEAL up the new plasmid with the DNA
• After genetically engineered plasmids are made, they are added to a culture of a bacterium, these bacteria take up the plasmids, and then they are grown in large fermentation vats (like for yoghurt) where they secrete insulin into culture solutions.
• Transgenic: means the transfer of genetic material from one species to another species.
• Fill in the table about plant nutrient ions:

  A) Nitrates

  B) Magnesium

  C) Phosphate

  D) Potassium

  E) proteins

  F) chlorophyll

  G) membranes

  H) DNA

  
• pesticide pollution is bad because it can be harmful to the environment, cause harm/death to non-pests (ie. honey bees/pollinators), and can bioaccumulate up the food chain, oh and last for a long time in the environment.
• Biological control is when you introduce an organism into the environment which will eat the pest but not the crop.
• The downsides of biological control are that it can explode in population due to no natural predators, and can outcompete native species and predate others which would lead to a decrease in populatiom. they can become invasive....
• Breaking down sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide by yeast anaerobically is done through a process called fermentation.
• In brewing, yeast is dissolved in a liquid containing the sugar maltose (comes from germinating barley(unsure if it's barley) seeds) and when the yeast respires anaerobically it breaks it down to make alcohol and carbon dioxide, which is what makes beer fizzy!
• Malting is the term used for when barley seeds are allowed to germinate by soaking in warm water
• Germinating barley seeds break down their carbohydrate stores which is what releases sugar, and they have to be killed before put into fermenter with yeast.
• In bread making, yeast is added to the dough to break down the sugar in the flour (starch) as it respires. As it respires aerobically (until oxygen is used up), the carbon dioxide gas produced gets caught in the dough which makes it rise. The yeast is killed when the bread is cooked.
• Fish farms are used to farm large numbers of fish.

  They are ideal cause, similar to a greenhouse, you can control all the variables of it such as:

  1. water quality
  2. predation (nets)
  3. feeding with optimal nutrient pellets
  4. disease: using antibiotics
  5. pesticides: reduce pest numbers
  6. interspecific competition: fish species kept in separate tanks
  7. gender segregation of fish (unless for breeding)
  8. intraspecific competition: fish of different ages kept seperately
• Because fishes produced through fish farming are often over-fed or given protein-rich food, especially with the hormones added to the water to speed growth, they end up becoming way fatter and growing up way faster than regular salmon (and take on a less streamlined and fit for survival build).

  Additionally fish farms use SELECTIVE BREEDING by only letting the largest and healthiest fish breed.
• The antibiotics fed to fish in fish farms is concerning as as humans consume said fish eventually we build up a tolerance to antibiotics.
• Making yoghurt: fill in the blanks

  A) lactose

  B) lactobacillus bulgaricus

  C) Lactic acid

  D) Energy

  
• Lactic acid causes pH of milk to fall and become more acidic which causes the milk to thicken and curdle.
• Milk is heated to 70 degrees celcius to kill microorganisms and then cooled before L. bulgaricus is added.
• Production of yoghurt (and many other things) occurs in industrial fermenters which are huge containers for mass production of food and antibiotics.

  they make it possible to control conditions such as: temperature, pH, CO2 concentration, oxygen, nutrient levels.
• Industrial fermenters must be kept sterile to prevent the growth of other micro-organisms due to health concerns and also because other organisms would cause competition for the bacteria inside the fermenters.
• Industrial fermenters are used to produce a variety of things, state what they are and aerobic and anaerobic or anaerobic

  1. Antibiotics - penicillin (aerobic)
  2. Beer - ethanol (anaerobic)
  3. yoghurt - lactic acid (anaerobic)
• Cooling jackets are used to keep the industrial fermenter at the optimum temperature for the microorganisms.

  A) sterile air in

  B) nutrients
• Paddles are used to keep stirring the mixture which stops waste products from building up and keeps the air evenly mixed. furthermore increases collisions, which means greater R.O.R, and just generally spreads things (Ie. maybe nutrients? unsure) evenbly.
• Nutrient medium supplies the microorganisms with fuel for respiration.
• Data loggers monitor temperature and pH to make sure it can be kept at the optimum conditions.
• Micropropagation:

  • Small pieces of plants (explants) are grown in a petri dish (in vitro) on nutrient medium.
  • Samples of the culture are taken off and grown separately.
  • If the right hormones are added to the culture it will turn into a miniature plant (also known as a plantlet).
  • process can be done at a huge scale and produce loads of plantlets (1000s) from a single culture.
• Dolly the sheep! Cloning animals involves the introduction of a diploid nucleus from a mature cell into enucleated egg cells.

  1. Nucleus removed from a embryonic cell (enucleate)
• Dolly the sheep! Cloning animals involves the introduction of a diploid nucleus from a mature cell into enucleated egg cells.

  1. Nucleus removed from a embryonic cell (enucleate)
  2. Replaced with the nucleus from an adult cell (from animal you want to clone)
  3. Embryonic cell grows into an embryo clone of the adult from which the donor nucleus came from.
• ADV and DISADV of potential use of transgenic organisms

  A) engineered

  B) identical

  C) extinction

  D) variation