Topic 5: Religion in a global context

• Religious fundamentalism


  In in in global contacts, the issue of fundamentalism has emerge as a major area of the media and political concern, most notably in relation to international Islamic terrorism

  • How the term fundamentalist can be applied to followers of other religions e.g. protestant Christians, the appeal to tradition, they seek to return to the basics of fundamentals of their faith/it arises when traditional believes and values are being threatened in modern society
• The characteristics of fundamentalism

  Fundamentalist appeal to tradition and often look back to a golden age in the past

  • they see a return to the basic fundamentals of their faith, but religious fundamentalism is quite different from a traditional religion
  • It arises only where traditional beliefs and values are threatened or challenged by modern society, especially by the impact of an increasingly globalised economy
• The characteristics of fundamentalism


  Threat to traditional beliefs can come from outside, for example through class capitalist globalisation, the penetration of western culture or it can come from within e.g. sections of society adopt new secular ideas such as liberal attitudes to sexuality and gender
• Characteristics of fundamentalism

  Sociology identified a number of key features of fundamentalism

  • And authoritative sacred- Christian fundamentalist word of the Bible is literally true, it’s truths are valid for all eternity and it contains the answers to all lives important questions from politics to family life, the inerrant
  • aldridge Augies no text speaks for itself, it has to be interpreted so in reality what fundamentalists hold to be true is not the text itself their interpretation of the meaning
• Characteristics of fundamentalism

  And authoritative sacred text

  • Aldridge notes no text speak for itself it has to be interpreted, so in reality what fundamentalist hold to be true is not the Tex itself but their interpretation of its meaning
  • Interpret the Bible solely as a set of historical facts and prophecies about the future ignoring other interpretations of it as poetry, symbolism or metaphor
  • Religious fundamentalism rejects religious plurism
  • This has important implications for what school teach
• Characteristics of fundamentalism

  Us and them mentality

  • Fundamentalist separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse to compromise with it
  • As Davie put it, they seek to establish islands of certainty against what they see as social and cultural chaos
• Characteristics of fundamentalism

  Aggressive reaction

  • Fundamentalists aim to draw attention to the threat of their beliefs and values and their reactions are therefore aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or cause harm
  • The authoritative leaders such as clergy or elders who interpret sacred text are seen as crucial in giving direction to the reactions
• Characteristics of fundamentalism

  Use of modern technology

  • Although fundamentalist oppose modern culture, which they see is corrupted by secularism, liberalism, materialism and promiscuity, they are keen to use modern technology to achieve their aim From computers and the Internet to tevangelism and military weaponry
• The characteristics of fundamentalism

  Patriarchy

  hawley that fundamentalist favour in which control over women sexuality, reproductive powers and their social and economic roles is fixed for all time by divine decree
• Characteristics of fundamentalism

  Prophecy

  Christian fundamentalists proclaim the relevance of biblical prophecies to contemporary events, they believe that the last days will soon be upon us, when the faithful dead will be resurrected and transported to heaven with the faithful living, before the seven year rule of the antichrist and ultimately the final defeat of Satan in the war of Armageddon
• characteristics of fundamentalism

  Conspiracy theories

  • Fundamentalist are often attracted to conspiracy theories, the idea that the powerful, hidden, evil forces and organisations are in control of human destiny
  • according to Aldridge, some extreme Christian and Islamic fundamentalist hold anti-Semitic conspiracy theories that believe Jews are conspiring to secure world domination
• Fundamentalism and modernity


  Davie argues fundamentalism occurs when those who hold traditional orthodox beliefs and values are threatened by maternity and feel they need to defend themselves against it

  • In this sense fundamentalists are themselves products of modernity, in so far as they are born out of the clash between modernity and traditional cultures
• Fundamentalism and modernity


  Similarly Giddens argues that fundamentalism is a product and a reaction to globalisation which undermines traditional social norms concerning the nuclear family, gender and sexuality (such as the prohibition of abortion, homosexuality and sex marriage)

  • today’s late modern society, individuals constantly faced with choice, uncertainty + risk
  • the attraction of fundamentalism and it’s rigid dogmatic beliefs is the certainty that it promises and uncertain world
  • Its a retreat into faith based answers and away from the risks and uncertainties of a globalising world
• Cosmopolitanism

  Giddens

  • Contrast fundamentalism with cosmopolitanism (way of thinking that embraces modernity and is in keeping with today’s globalising world)
  • Cosmopolitanism is tolerant of other views and open to new ideas. It also constantly reflects on And modifies beliefs in the light of new information which he calls reflective thinking
  • It requires people to justify their views by the use of rational arguments and evidence rather than sacred texts
  • Lifestyle is seem to be a personal choice rather than something prescribed by external religious/other authority
• Cosmopolitanism

  Giddens

  • Cosmopolitan religion emphasises the pursuit of personal meaning and self improvement rather than submission to authority
  • This connects to Hervieur legers pilgrims who explore the new age spirituality
• Responses to post-modernity

  Bauman fundamentalism as a response to living in post-modernity

  • Postmodern society brings freedoms of choice, uncertainty and heightened awareness of risk undermining the certainties about how to live that were grounded in tradition
  • In this situation, whilst some embrace the new freedom, others are attracted to fundamentalism by its claims of absolute truth and certainty
• Responses to post-modernity

  Castelles distinguishes between two responses to post-modernity

  • Resistance identity- defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat to fundamentalist communities
  • Project Identity- the response of those who are forward and engage with social movement such as feminism and environmentalism
• Criticisms of cosmopolitanism

  Beckford criticises Giddens, bauman and castelles on several grounds

  • They distinguished two sharply between cosmopolitanism and fundamentalism ignoring hybrid movements
  • They are fixated on fundamentalism ignoring other important developments including globalisation also affects non-fundamentalist religion such as Catholicism
  • Gidden lump all types of fundamentalism together ignoring important differences between them
  • haynes argues we shouldn’t focus narrowly on the idea that Islamic fundamentalism is a reaction against globalisation
• Monotheism and fundamentalism

  Bruce sees the main cause of fundamentalism as the perception of religious tradition list that today’s globalising world threatens their beliefs

  • Regards, fundamentalism as being confined to monotheistic religions, that is, those believing in a single Almighty God such as Judaism, Islam, and Christianity
  • Polytheistic religions that believe in the existence of many God such as Hinduism are unlikely to produce fundamentalism
• Monotheism and fundamentalism

  Bruce

  • Religions based on the belief of many gods are unlikely to produce fundamentalism
  • This is because monotheistic religions are based on a notion of God as revealed through a single authoritative sacred tech such as the Bible
  • this is believed to contain the actual word of God and lays down specific rules for believers to follow
  • By contrast, polytheistic religions lack a single or powerful deity and a single authoritative text, so there’s much more scope for different inter interpretations and none has an override claim to legitimacy or absolute truth
• Monotheism and fundamentalism- two fundamentalisms 


  Bruce- Different fundamentalist movements have different origins

  • In particular triggered by changes with their own society while others are response to changes being thrust upon a society from the outside
  • Illustrates this distinction with examples of Christian and Islamic fundamentalism
• Monotheism and fundamentalism- two fundamentalisms

  In the West- fundamentalism is a response to trends towards diversity and choice e.g. the new Christian right opposed gender equality and sexual permissiveness, gender equality and abortion rights, secular education, and the privatisation of religion, the aim is to integrate the state and the church
• monotheism and fundamentalism- two fundamentalisms


  IIn developing countries- fundamentalism is a reaction to changes being thrust upon society by the outside world, which are triggered by globalisation e.g. western values being imposed by foreign capitalism or by local elites supporting the west. The aim is to resist the states attempt to confine religion to the sphere.

  • irrational response to protect traditional Islamic views from western imperialism and Americanisation of culture meaning a reproduction in existential security, therefore fundamentalism arises
• Secular fundamentalism


  Davie argues that fundamentalism may also be a secular response to changes in modern societies, she distinguishes between two phases of maternity

  • The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism- this phase stretched from the time of the philosophical movement known as the enlightenment in the late 18th century to about the 1960s.
  • Enlightenment philosophy held an optimistic secular belief in a certainty of progress based on the power of science and human reason to improve the world.
  • T
• Secular fundamentalism


  The first phase gave rise to religious fundamentalism

  • his enlightenment project dominated European thought and helped to secularise all areas of social life attacking undermining religious certainties, religious fundamentalism is one reaction to this secularisation process
• Secular fundamentalism


  The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism

  • Since the 1970s the optimism of the enlightenment project has itself come under attack. This is a result of growing mood of pessimism and uncertainty.
  • The mood is the product of the insecurity caused by changes such as globalisation, concerns about the environment and the collapse of communism in 1989
  • This is led to a loss of faith in the major secular and ideology such as liberalism and rationalism and Marxism whose claims to truth and belief in progress have been undermined
• Secular fundamentalism


  The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism

  • As a result, these secular ideologies are themselves struggling for survival, just like traditional religion
  • As Davie put it, they are passed their cell by date. as Davie put it, they are passed their cell by date.
  • And as with religion when it came under attack, some supporters of secular ideologies such as nationalism have also been attracted to fundamentalism
• Secular fundamentalism


  The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism

  • In western Europe perceived religious challenges to liberal secular values have provoked a secular fundamentalist reaction eg in 2004 France banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in school, and in 2010 made it illegal for women to wear the veil in public
• Secular fundamentalism


  The second phase is giving rise to secular fundamentalism

  • Banning wearing the veil in public, Ansell Sees such trends as a form of cultural racism that uses the apparently liberal language of universal equality and social integration, while denying racist aim, in reality, however, it is about preserving the dominant groups, cultural identity and way of life, and it legitimises the exclusion of religious cultural minorities
• Secular fundamentalism


  second phase is giving rise to secular funda

  • In conclusion argues at both religious and secular movements can become fundamentalist as a result of the greater uncertainties of life in the late modern or post-modern world, in which reasserting truth and certainty is increasingly attractive
  • as a result, competing fundamentalisms have become a normal feature of today’s society
  • similarly hervieu- leger sees fundamentalism as a form of re-created memories in late modern societies that have suffered cultural amnesia and forgotten their historic religious traditions
• The Clash of civilisations


  In recent years religion has played an important role in a number of global complex, these include 911 terrorist attacks in the USA in 2001,

  • Huntingdon identifies seven civilisations: Western, Islamic, SSlavic-orthodox (Russia and Eastern Europe), Latin America, confucian (China), Japanese and Hindu. Most civilisations are larger than a single nation. Each has a shared cultural background and history, and is closely identified with one of the worlds great religions.
• The clash of civilisations

  Huntingdon claims that religious difference between civilisations are now a major source of conflict. This is because globalisation has made a notion-states less important as a source of identity creating a gap that religion has filled

  • At the same time, globalisation increases the conflicts between civilisations, in increasing the likelihood of conflict
  • He sees religious differences as harder to resolve than political ones because they are deeply rooted into culture and history history
• The Clash of civilisations

  Huntington view, religious differences are creating a set of hostile us and them relationships with increased competition between civilisations for economic and military power, for example in the Middle East.

  In particular Huntingdon sees the west as Under threat from Islam, a view for which he has been strongly criticised
• Criticisms of the clash of civilisations

  Jackson- sees Huntington’s work as an example of orientalism- a western ideology that stereotypes eastern nations and people, (especially Muslims) as untrustworthy, inferior or fantical (others), and serves to justify exploitation and human rights abuses by the west

  • Casanova- argues that Huntingdon’s view is simplistic and ignores the important religious divisions within the civilisations he identifies e.g. between sunnI and shia Islam
• Criticisms of the clash of civilisation

  horrie and Chippendale, see the clash of civilisations as grossly misleading neo conservative ideology that portrays the whole of Islam as an enemy in reality only a tiny minority of the world 1.5 billion Muslims are remotely interested in a holy war against the West

  • Armstrong argues that hostility towards the west does not stem from fundamentalist Islam, but is a reaction to Western foreign policy in the Middle East. The West has Propped up oppressive regimes and continues to support Israel despite its aggressive treatment to Palestine.
• The real clash of civilisations

  Huntingdon’s Work suggest that the Muslim world holds fundamentally different, anti-democratic values from those of the west

  • However, evidence indicates this isn’t the case
  • Using data from the world values survey Inglehart and Norris conclude that the issue that divides the west from the Muslim world is not democracy but gender and sexuality
  • They find that support from democracy is similar high in both the west and the Muslim world but there are great differences when it comes to attitudes to divorce, abortion, gender equality and rights
• The real clash of civilisation

  While Western attitudes have become more liberal, in the Muslim world they remain traditional

  • Inglehart and Norris comment that in the last decade, democracy has become the political ideology to gain global appeal but there’s no global agreement about self expression values such as tolerance of diversity, gender equality, and freedom of speech
  • In their view, these divergent values constitute the real clash of civilisation between Muslim societies and the west
• Cultural defence

  Bruce sees one function of religion in today’s world as a cultural defence

  • This is where religion served to united community against an external threat
  • In such situations, religion has special significance for its followers because it symbolises the group or societies collective identity
  • Defending the community against a threat that often gives religion a prominent role in politics
• Globalisation and religion as a cultural defence

  As the world globalises, national identities mean less and less e.g. politicians now talk about the European community or the Middle East or Asia rather than identifying individual countries

  • Societies around the world experiencing a crisis of identity whereby their cultures, languages, tradition and politics are becoming less significant
  • Individual national identities are being replaced by collective international identities
• Cultural defence

  Two examples of religion as a cultural defence from the late 20th century are Poland and Iran that illustrate how religion can be used in a defence or national identity in the face of political domination by external power

  • In Poland, the external power was Soviet communism while in Iran it was western culture and capitalism
  • In both cases, therefore the role of religion has to be understood in a transnational context