enzymes

• Antibiotic is a substance that kills bacteria or inhibits specific enzymes to the life process of bacteria.
• Antibiotic do not affect the normal metabolism of the host organism.
• Sulfa Drugs is the first “antibiotics” in the medical field.
• Sulfanilamide inhibits bacterial growth because its structure is similar to PABA (p-aminobenzoic acid)
• P-aminobenzoic acid is an important type of organic compound for many bacteria in order to produce an important coenzyme called folic acid.
• Gerhard Domagk a German bacteriologist discovered Sulfa Drugs on 1932.
• Penicillins is one of the most widely used antibiotics.
• Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928.
• Anthrax occurs naturally in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild animals around the world.
• P-aminobenzoic acid is synthesized and utilized as a substrate for the synthesis of folic acid in many bacterial species, yeasts and plants.
• Penicillinase only affect plants.
• Scientists made improved penicillins (like methicillin and amoxicillin) that can't be easily destroyed by bacteria, making them more effective treatments.
• Cipro fights many infections throughout the body, from skin and bones to urinary tract, gut, and lungs. It's even a go-to treatment for traveler's diarrhea.
• Cipro is considered one of the best broad-spectrum antibiotics available.
• • Enzymes and vitamins are essential components governing biochemical reactions and cellular metabolism in living organisms.
• • Enzymes, specialized proteins, catalyze various biochemical reactions with precision and selectivity.
• Vitamins play crucial roles in cellular metabolism, often serving as enzyme cofactors or carriers of functional groups.
• Enzyme Activity is a measure of the rate at which an enzyme converts substrate to products in a biochemical reaction.
• Four factors that affect enzyme activity: temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration.
• Temperature affects enzyme activity by influencing the kinetic energy of molecules.
• Denaturation occurs when temperature is beyond a certain point disrupting the enzyme's tertiary structure and decreasing activity.
• Optimum temperature is where enzyme activity is highest.
• pH affects enzyme activity by altering the charge on acidic and basic amino acids at the active site.
• pH can also affect substrates.
• Substrate concentration initially boosts enzyme activity.
• Saturation curve, enzyme activity increase with substrate concentration until reaching a plateau.
• Maximum Enzymatic Activity, enzyme activity levels off at a certain substrate concentration, indicating saturation.
• Limiting Factor: Enzyme, capabilities reach maximum extent, limiting further increase in activity.
• Constant Rate, once saturation is reached, the rate of reaction remains constant.
• Active Site Occupancy, each substrate molecule occupies an enzyme active site for a finite amount of time.
• Saturation Conditions, enzyme molecules work at full capacity, causing substrate molecules to wait for an empty active site.
• Turnover Number, indicates the rae at which one enzyme molecule transforms substrate molecules per minute under optimal conditions.
• Variation in Efficiency, different enzymes have varying turnover numbers, reflecting differences in their efficiency and speed of catalysis.
• Enzyme Concentration is usually kept low compared to substrate molecules to conserve energy.
• Efficiency, lower enzyme concentration minimizes energy costs of synthesizing and maintaining enzymes.
• Higher Substrate Concentration, substrate concentration is much higher than enzyme concentration.
• Increased Enzyme Concentration, leads to higher reaction rates, as more substrate molecules can be accommodated in a given time.
• Graphical Representation, plot of enzyme activity versus enzyme concentration at constant, high substrate concentration shows increasing reaction rates with higher enzyme concentration.
• Fat-soluble vitamins


  Vitamins designated using the letters A, D, E, and K
• Fat-soluble vitamins


  • Many of their functions involve processes that occur in cell membranes
  • Their structures are more hydrocarbon-like, with fewer functional groups than the water-soluble vitamins
  • Their structures as a whole are nonpolar, which enhances their solubility in cell membranes