Reviewer Bio

• Types of Organisms as to their Food Source

  • HERBIVORES
  • CARNIVORES
  • OMNIVORES
• Nourishment


  Helps to keep overall wellness of the body
• Types of Vitamins


  • Water-soluble vitamins (Vitamins C and B)
  • Fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamins A, D, E, and K)
• Water-soluble vitamins


  Transported as free compounds in the blood and serve as co-enzymes in metabolic reactions
• Fat-soluble vitamins


  Transported in the blood as complexes that are linked to lipids
• Minerals


  Inorganic molecules that provide ions essential for the functioning of many enzymes or proteins
• Significant amounts of ions may be lost by the body through sweating, defecating, and urinating and thus must be replenished
• Intracellular Digestion


  1. Food is mixed with water inside the spongocoel or the body cavity

  2. Some cells do it through phagocytosis

  3. Others use flagella to sweep the food from the water

  
• Extracellular Digestion


  Roundworms have a digestive tube that is specialized in different regions for ingestion, storage, digestion, and absorption

  
• The Human Digestive System

  • Food is ingested, chewed, and ground into smaller sizes with the help of teeth
  • Epiglottis closes the opening to the lungs to prevent entrance of food and fluids to the airways
  • Peristalsis - contraction and relaxation of the muscles
  • Cardiac sphincter assists in preventing regurgitation of acidic chyme from the stomach
  • Temporary storage of food
  • Food enters the duodenum through the pyloric sphincter
  • Jejunum
  • Ileum
  • Undigested food is channeled, water and ions are reabsorbed, and the bulk that remains is then stored

  
• Enzymes


  • Organic catalysts that hasten chemical reactions
  • Break down food substances into forms that the body can absorb, process, and utilize
• Enzymes in the oral cavity

  • Salivary amylase - initiates carbohydrate breakdown
  • Lingual lipase - starts fat digestion
• Enzymes in the stomach

  • Pepsinogen - produced by chief cells
  • Pepsin - an active form transformed by HCl
• Intrinsic factor


  Secreted by parietal cells in the stomach, responsible for absorption of vitamin B12
• Enzymes in the duodenum

  • Trypsinogen
  • Chymotrypsinogen
  • Pancreatic lipase
  • Nucleases
  • Pancreatic amylase
• Enzymes along the entire lining of the long small intestine function to further cleave the broken-down products of digestion into more readily absorbable particles

  
• Enzymes in the small intestine

  • Sucrase
  • Lactase
  • Maltase
  • Other disaccharides
• Liver


  • Largest gland of the body
  • Consists of four lobes: right, left, quadrate, and caudate lobe
  • Its basic structural unit is hepatocyte
  • Neutralizes and eliminates toxic substances when blood passes through
  • Stores vitamins, iron, and glucose
  • Synthesizes proteins such as albumin and fibrinogen
  • Converts highly toxic ammonia into urea
  • Produces bile
• Gall Bladder


  • Reservoir of bile
  • Bile helps with digestion by breaking down fats into fatty acids, which can be taken into the body by the digestive tract
  • Cystic duct is the gall bladder's duct where bile enters and exits
• Pancreas


  • Both an endocrine gland (empties its secretions directly into the blood) and exocrine gland (a ductless gland)
  • As an endocrine gland, the Islets of Langerhans are responsible for the secretion of insulin (lowers blood glucose levels) and glucagon (raise blood glucose levels)
  • As an exocrine gland, the acinar glands secrete digestive enzymes such as trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen and carboxypeptidase into the duodenum by the pancreatic duct and the ampulla of vater
• Soil


  • A source of mineral nutrient
  • A mixture of many ingredients which may include organic compost, minerals, water, air and many organisms and particularly, microorganisms
• Minerals


  • Inorganic compounds that are usually found in soil or rocks
  • Minerals that are dissolved in water found in the spaces between soil particles can be absorbed by the roots
• Macronutrients


  • C, O, H, N, K, Ca, Mg, P, S
• Micronutrients


  • Cl, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Mo, Cu
• Photosynthesis


  1. Needs energy from sunlight to drive its process

  2. Synthesis of carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light and chlorophyll, plants can manufacture food
• Photosystems


  Large complexes of proteins and pigments optimized to harvest light efficiently
• Photolysis


  A chemical process where molecules are broken down into smaller units by absorbing light
• Electron transport chain


  A series of protein complexes and molecules that transfers electrons from donors to acceptors
• NADP reductase


  Receives electrons from ferrodoxin and converts NADP+ to NADPH
• NADPH


  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrogen - an electron acceptor to help reduce oxidized compounds, supporting essential processes within the cell
• NADPT+


  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
• ATP


  Adenosine triphosphate - an energy carrying molecule
• ADP


  Adenosine Diphosphate
• RUBISCO


  Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase - a key enzyme in photosynthesis catalyzing carbon dioxide fixation
• RuBP


  Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate - it acts as the primary acceptor of carbon dioxide in plants
• G3P


  Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate - it is involved in the synthesis of carbohydrates
• Photosynthesis - Light-Dependent Reaction

  1. Occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast

  2. Two reaction centers in the chloroplast: Photosystem II and Photosystem I

  3. When chlorophyll absorbs photo of light, one of its electrons is boosted to a higher energy level where it becomes very reactive or unstable

  4. Light energy is converted to ATP and an electron carrier called NADPH

  5. Each photosystem has only one chlorophyll a molecule, and hundreds of chlorophyll b and carotenoids that help collect light energy
• Photosynthesis - Light-Independent Reaction

  1. Also known as Calvin cycle

  2. Light is no longer necessary

  3. CO2 is reduced to glucose through the oxidation-reduction reactions

  4. Occurs in stroma, a fluid-filled part of a chloroplast
• Some bacteria live symbiotically with the roots of plants, helping the plants to fix nitrogen and convert it into more usable form
• Some vascular plants live symbiotically with Mycorrhizal fungi, which play an important role in the transfer of Phosphorus and in the uptake of some micronutrients