Southeast Asian Politics

• Brunei


  Negara Brunei Darussalam
• Pre-Colonial Brunei Sultanate


  • Emerged by 15th century
  • Embraced Islam
  • Expanded influence across Borneo
  • Controlled key trade routes
• Early Kingdoms in Brunei

  • Archaeological evidence of settlements dating back to 2nd millennium BC
  • Po Luo kingdom (7th-10th centuries) flourished through trade and maritime connections
• European powers reached Southeast Asia in the 16th century


  Brunei faced pressure from Spanish and Dutch incursions, leading to territorial losses and weakening its dominance
• British Protectorate


  In 1888, Brunei signed a protectorate treaty with Britain, limiting its autonomy in foreign affairs and defense, but internal administration remained largely in Bruneian hands
• Independence Movement


  1. Growing nationalism and desire for greater autonomy led to calls for independence in the mid-20th century

  2. Negotiations with Britain culminated in full independence in 1984
• Internal Focus under British Protection


  • Brunei focused on internal development, particularly oil exploration and production from the early 20th century
  • This generated significant revenue and improved living standards
• Brunei's nationhood shaped by internal factors, regional tensions, and colonial past
• Challenges overcome through internal development and strategic talks
• Independence achieved, paving the way for Brunei's unique national path
• Pre-colonial Indonesian society


  • Diverse and indigenous cultures spread all over the archipelago
  • Various kingdoms and empires: Srivijaya, Majapahit, Mataram
  • Organized around agriculture, trade, and maritime activities
  • Aristocrats, Commoners, Slaves
  • Influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism, Indigenous beliefs, Islam
  • Trade networks contributed to culture exchange and economic prosperity
• Kutai Kingdom


  Established around 375 AD, characteristic of archaic Hinduism
• Tarumanagar Kingdom


  Established in 4th-7th century, King Purnavarman, major influence on first known indigenous kingdoms
• Spread of Islam in Indonesia

  1. 13th century: Muslim traders came, settled in coastal areas, married local women, respected for wealth, local rulers converted

  2. 14th century: Islamic empires like Malacca acquired new rising powers

  3. 15th century: Islam established Sultanates and ruled large parts of Eastern Indonesia
• News of Malacca spread throughout Europe, tempting them to sail and gain influence on global trade network

  16th century
• Portuguese and Dutch colonialism


  • Exploitation and trade led to establishment of colonial rule
  • 1511: Malacca conquered by Portuguese
  • 19th century: Dutch East India Company formalized under Dutch colonial government, key trading posts, exploited resources, imposed harsh labor systems, suppressed local resistance
• Dutch colonial policy


  Ethical Policy: Followed concerns about welfare of Indonesian people, prioritized educational opportunities
• Formation of Indonesian nation-state

  1. Before European colonialism: Numerous kingdoms, sultanates, tribal societies

  2. European colonialism: Exploitation of Indonesia's resources

  3. Nationalist movements

  4. WWII Japanese occupation: Contributed to development and Indonesian revolution

  5. August 17, 1945: Proclamation of Indonesian independence

  6. Dutch-Indonesian War: 4 year war, attempt to reassert control

  7. December 1949: Netherlands recognizes Indonesian independence
• Precolonial Timorese society


  • Characterized by a diversity of indigenous ethnic groups, each with its own distinct culture, language, and social organization
  • Organized around kinship systems, with clans and extended families forming the basic social units
  • Religion played a significant role, with animistic beliefs and ancestor worship being widespread
  • Political organization varied, with some areas ruled by traditional chieftains or kings, while others were organized as more egalitarian societies with decision-making based on consensus among community elders
  • Interactions between different ethnic groups were frequent, leading to cultural exchange and occasional conflicts over resources or territory
• Colonialism in Timor-Leste


  • Experienced the influence of various European powers, primarily Portugal and the Netherlands
  • The Portuguese began colonizing the eastern part of the island in the 16th century, while the Dutch controlled the western part
  • Subjected to forced labor, land expropriation, and the imposition of foreign laws and customs
  • The indigenous population faced exploitation and discrimination, leading to social upheaval and resistance movements against colonial authorities
  • The Portuguese administration introduced Christianity, education, and modern infrastructure, but these developments were often unevenly implemented and primarily benefited the colonial rulers and a small elite class
• Formation of the Nation State

  1. Timor-Leste gained independence from colonial rule through a protracted struggle against Portuguese and Indonesian occupation

  2. Following Portugal's withdrawal in 1975, Timor-Leste declared independence but was invaded and occupied by Indonesia

  3. A resistance movement, led by groups like Fretilin, fought against Indonesian rule for over two decades

  4. International pressure and diplomatic efforts eventually led to a UN-sponsored referendum in 1999, in which the Timorese people voted for independence

  5. This triggered a period of violence by pro-Indonesian militias, but with the intervention of international peacekeeping forces, Timor-Leste finally achieved full independence in 2002
• Periods of development in Cambodia

  • Funan and Chenla (5000 BCE-8000BCE)
  • Chenla (early 8th century-6th century)
  • Angkorian Period (9th century-15th century)
  • Post Angkor Period (15th century-1863)
• Funan and Chenla


  • Introduced Indianization, adopting elements of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as architectural styles and administrative systems
• Chenla


  • Divided into Land Chenla and Water Chenla, saw the emergence of the Khmer Empire's ancestors
• Angkorian Period


  • The Khmer Empire reached its zenith, building monumental structures such as Angkor Wat and establishing a vast and influential empire
• Post Angkor Period


  • Cambodia faced significant challenges, including conflicts with neighboring nations and internal strife following the collapse of the Khmer Empire
• When French explorers arrived in Cambodia in the early 1860's they were seeking to expand French commercial interests in Southeast Asia, and believed that Cambodia or more precisely the Mekong, were a gateway to China
• The French had already occupied southern Vietnam as a colony, and were eager to increase the control over the region
• French rule lasted until 1950s, and was less harsh than in neighboring Vietnam
• The Khmer elite was treated well and French policies had a relatively light impact on the population, while improvements in infrastructure strengthened the economy and brought Cambodia to the edges of the developed world
• France's greatest contribution to Cambodia was probably its restoration of the temples at Yasodharapura
• French scholars deciphered Angkorean inscriptions and rebuilt many of the temples, providing Cambodians with a glorious, precisely dated past that had been largely forgotten
• Probably the major defect in the French protectorate was that it failed to educate Cambodian people, and allowed them no opportunities, before the 1940s, to participate in the political process. They prepared the country very poorly for independence
• Until World War II there was only one high school in the kingdom, and no university
• After Cambodia gained its independence from France, it entered a short period of peace and prosperity which many older Khmer now look back on as golden age
• Under peace agreements signed in Paris in 1991, Cambodia came under United Nations protection for a time in preparation for general elections that were held in 1993. Since then, Cambodia has been a constitutional monarchy ruled by a coalition government that has accepted large infusions of foreign aid
• In 1999 Cambodia became a member of ASEAN, and became for the first time, after centuries of isolation, a full-fledged member of the Southeast Asian community