attachment

• Caregiver-infant interactions


  Infants and caregivers develop deep and lasting emotional bonds, both members of this emotional relationship see closeness and feel more secure when close
• Reciprocity


  • Similar to a conversation, a mutual turn-taking form of interaction where both caregiver and infant contribute by responding to the other's signals and cues
• Interactional synchrony


  • A simultaneous interaction between the infant and caregiver who appear to be acting rhythmically with matching coordinated behavior and matching emotional states
• Imitation


  • The infant directly copies the caregiver's expression
• Sensitive responsiveness


  • The adult caregiver correctly interprets the meaning of the infant's communication and is motivated to respond appropriately
• Meltzoff and moore


  • An experimenter displayed facial gestures such as sticking a tongue out and opening their mouth in front of 12 to 21 day old infants, finding infants had the ability to observe and reciprocate through imitation
• Cond and sander 1974

  • Videotaped interactions between adults and neonates, finding evidence of interactional synchrony and coordination
• negative evaluation:

  Infants cannot directly communicate their thoughts or emotions, therefore findings in caregiver-infant interaction research depend on inferences and assumptions about the infant's internal mental states which are considered unscientific
• Social sensitivity is a concern when investigating child-rearing techniques including norms around caregiver-infant interactions, as some women may find their life choices criticised
• Stages of attachment


  • Stage 1 (0-6 weeks): Asocial, babies display innate behaviors that ensure proximity to any potential caregiver
  • Stage 2 (6 weeks-7 months): Indiscriminate attachment, infants develop the ability to tell a difference between familiar and unfamiliar individuals
  • Stage 3 (7-9 months): Specific attachment, babies form a strong attachment to a primary caregiver, often their mother, separation anxiety and stranger anxiety develop
  • Stage 4 (9-10 months+): Multiple attachment, the infant starts to form attachments with other regular caregivers and stranger anxiety decreases
• Schaer and emson 1964


  • Longitudinal observation of 60 working-class babies from Glasgow, found separation anxiety occurred in most babies by 25-32 weeks, stranger anxiety started 1 month later, and at 18 months 87% had developed multiple attachments with the strongest to mothers with consistent caregiver-infant interactions
• The sample and shape of the Schaer and emson study may not be generalizable or have temporal validity as it only included a group of working class mothers in 1960s Glasgow
• Role of fathers

  • Schaer found that at 18 months, 75% of infants had formed an attachment with their father showing separation anxiety, suggesting fathers play an important role
  • Fathers are seen to encourage babies in active play activities more consistently than mothers, this stimulation is thought to encourage risk-taking behaviors
  • If men take on the role of primary caregiver, their interactional style changes to be more like mothers, increasing their capacity for sensitive responsiveness
• Theories that argue the role of the mother cannot be replaced by the father may lead to father-less single families and families of two fathers feeling they cannot fully provide for the needs of infants
• Research on caregiver-infant interactions could lead to legislation that ensures equal paternity and maternity leave, which may reduce the number of males in the workforce but also help to address the gender pay gap
• Lorenz's research on imprinting in geese

  • Goslings imprinted on Lorenz after hatching, showing a strong bond and following behavior, Lorenz found a critical period of around 32 hours for imprinting
• Harlow's research on rhesus monkey infants

  • Infant monkeys spent most of their time with the comfort-providing cloth mother, only visiting the food-providing wire mother when needed, suggesting a biological need for physical contact and comfort
• The generalization of animal behavior to human psychology is problematic as humans and animals have very different biology and social/cultural experiences
• Learning theory


  Infants become attached to their caregiver because they learn the caregiver provides food, through classical conditioning and operant conditioning
• Learning theory has face validity and the Behavior's principles used to explain attachment are backed up by research, but most parents would say their relationship with their children is more complicated than simple stimulus associations
• Bowlby's monotropy theory


  Infants have an innate instinctual drive to form an especially strong attachment to their mother, this is vital for infant survival, and a lack of monotropy results in permanent negative consequences
• Bowlby's ideas have been developed and applied to early child care, but research on orphans suggests early childhood is sensitive rather than critical, and suitable care can lead to recovery, contrary to Bowlby's claim of permanent damage
• Bowlby's view of the father's role as providing resources while the mother's monotropic role is crucial is likely a reflection of 1940s worldview that now lacks temporal validity
• Ainsworth's strange situation and attachment types

  • Behaviors indicating attachment strength: proximity to mother, exploration, safe base, stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, reunion response, sensitive responsiveness
  • Attachment types: Secure (Type B), Insecure-avoidant (Type A), Insecure-resistant (Type C)
• Rationality


  (in classical economic theory) economic agents are able to consider the outcome of their choices and recognise the net benefits of each one
• Rational agents will select the choice which presents the highest benefits
• Producers act rationally by


  Selling goods/services in a way that maximises their profits
• Workers act rationally by


  Balancing welfare at work with consideration of both pay and benefits
• Governments act rationally by


  Placing the interests of the people they serve first in order to maximise their welfare
• Rationality in classical economic theory is a flawed assumption as people usually don't act rationally
• A firm increases advertising

  Demand curve shifts right
• Demand curve shifting right

  Increases the equilibrium price and quantity
• If you add up marginal utility for each unit you get total utility
• e to think that they have complete conscious control over their relationships including responsibility for the success of relationships not that this is set in infancy
• Bobby argues the father's role is to provide resources for the family while the mother's monotropic role is crucial


  This is likely a reflection of 1940s worldview that is likely correct in its time but now lacks temporal validity
• Ainsworth's strange situation


  • Structured observation of infant and mother pairs in a lab setting
  • Included the mother leaving the room and the stranger entering
  • Recorded behaviors that indicated attachment strength
• Ainsworth's findings


  Provided evidence for three distinct attachment types: secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure resistant
• Ainsworth's findings showed 66% of infants were secure, 22% insecure avoidant, and 12% insecure resistant
• Secure attachment


  Develops due to the attention of a consistently sensitive responsive mother
• Strange situation


  • Highly controlled observational research study with standardized procedures and clear behavioral categories
  • Has resulted in precise replications
  • Predictive validity - children classified as securely attached tend to have better social, emotional, and academic outcomes