history ww1

• Why German offensive of 1918 was unsuccessful

  1. German prospects in war not good in Jan 1918

  2. Germany still committed to war on Eastern front

  3. Germany had recruited all remaining reserves

  4. Submarine campaign failed to deliver knock-out blow against Britain

  5. US expected to deliver more troops to bolster opponents in west
• Operation Michael


  German plan to draw Allies away from Flanders, so could launch decisive campaign designed to push BEF into Sea, Germany's last chance of victory
• Erich Ludendorff


  • Successes capturing Liege in west and defeating Russian forces in east
  • Promoted to Quartermaster-General under Hindenburg, two officers ran Germany as "silent dictatorship"
  • Chiefly responsible persuading Wilhelm II to accept armistice in Nov
  • Spent much of life after war perpetuating "stab in back" myth
  • Accomplice of Hitler in failed 1923 Beer Hall Putsch
• German offensive started 21 March


  1. German army amassed troops south of Arras in St Quentin sector

  2. Initially huge success, advanced 35miles in first three weeks

  3. Subsequent attacks in June/July pushed allies within 30miles of Paris before stopped by Franco-American counter offensive
• British lost 178,000, including 70,000 prisoners, French lost 77,000, Germany over 1Mio
• Reasons for failure of German offensive

  • Initial success transformed war of attrition into war of movement, played into hands of enemy with more men, tanks, aircraft
  • Newly captured grounds had to be occupied and defended, Hindenburg realized unable to do after 1916 Somne offensive
  • Retreat and shortening defensive lines
  • Successful French counter attack in Marne in July, Ludendorff called off offensive in Flanders
  • French success showed allies shift in tactics, with surprise attacks, creeping barrages supporting infantry advances, reinforced by overwhelming superiority of shells/tanks
  • Allied superiority reflected in numerical superiority, Spanish flu resulted in half a Mio. Deaths in German army, only 2 of its 13 divisions fit for action in August
• Impact on German morale


  Alcohol abuse, shirking, desertion became feature in what was a highly disciplined armed force
• Turning point on western Front

  • Defeat Amiens in August, combined Allied infantry, artillery, tank and air offensive, precise intelligence of location
  • Resulted in advance of 8 miles ("black day of Germany"-Ludendorff)
  • Tactical innovations displayed by French at Marne and British at Amiens significant in breakthrough that eluded Allies in 1916/17
• With breaking Hindenburg line at end of September, question WHEN Germany would surrender
• Silent dictatorship


  (as some historians refer to) General Ludendorff and Hindenburg interfered in domestic affairs under auspices of directing country's war effort
• Reichstag


  Started to take more active role in questioning direction of war effort and composition of government
• Trends in German political system


  Converged to overthrow Empire and create new Empire
• Main long-term cause of German revolution

  War weariness
• Reichstag demanded peace without major annexations and reparations


  July 1917
• Ludendorff


  Willing to consider "revolution from above" to prevent widespread mutiny and possible revolution
• German revolution


  1. First stage took place between 3-26 October

  2. Second stage triggered by mutiny of sailors at Kiel and Wilhelmshaven
• October Reforms


  Transferred power from elite to Reichstag, overthrew old system of government established by Bismarck, created parliamentary monarchy instead
• Wilson insisted peace negotiations take place with true representatives of German people, not generals or Kaiser
• Sailors refused to return from leave or set sail on October 30 in reaction to plan for large naval assault on Britain's High Seas Fleet
• Soldiers council set up, soon included industrial workers from Kiel
• Within a week, riots broke out all over Germany with Kurt Eisner establishing Bavarian Democratic and Social Republic in Munich on 8 November
• Berlin became centre of political intrigue which resulted in abdication of Kaiser
• Wilson stated Wilhelm not allowed participation in peace talks
• Fearing imminent civil war, delay end of war and more radical socialist revolution, Prince Max Baden announced Wilhelm's abdication, appointed SPD leader Friedrich Ebert as new chancellor
• "Revolution from above"


  Upper part of society (soldiers and people with political power) imposes political and social change
• Reichstag wanted armistice, elite wanted peace negotiations, all of process initiated by Kaiser, chancellor, Reichstag
• Pressure from below (soldiers refusing naval action, army disintegrating, riots) led to Kaiser's abdication
• On 28 September, Ludendorff and Hindenburg agreed no choice but surrender, otherwise likely complete destruction of German army and invasion of Germany
• Start of November German forces in state of permanent retreat, morale collapsed
• Timing of decision to surrender influenced by events on western and other fronts, including Allied breakthrough and Bulgarian defeat
• Germany finally agreed on harsh peace terms imposed by Allies and signed armistice on 11 November 1918
• Two main reasons for Germany's defeat: two-front war (Allies better, plus support from USA) and blockade (weakened army, shortages, lack of civilian support)
• Germany's defeat was not inevitable, but with US entry it became so
• British Prime Minister David Lloyd George: '"cruelest and most terrible war that scourged mankind"'
• War= bid by Central powers to achieve supremacy or domination over Europe -> when failed in autumn 1918, initiative lay with Allies (principally GB, France, US) to bring about new peace in EU
• As soon war coming to end Nov. 1918, plans made for peace conference In Paris during 1919 -> produced peace treaties referred to collectively as "Versailles Settlement"
• Versailles Settlement result of discussions held by victorious countries -> all countries concerned wanted peace settlement that would last and prevent of slaughter of WW1, problem: could be achieved in many ways
• Led to strong disagreement among peacemakers on number of key issues f.e. extent to which defeated countries should be punished/victorious rewarded
• Disagreement turned into compromise especially Treaty of Versailles became focus of criticism and debate
• Allies meet in Versailles to decide who started war (question of guilt), who has to pay for damage and what done with defeated states, how to prevent war