Cultural Changes

• Russia remained dominated by men.
• Like his father and grandfather, Nicholas II tried to limit female education but educational opportunities grew in the early 20th century.

  • 45% of university students were female in 1914.
• Levels of female independence grew through waged factory work.
• In 1908, the First All-Russian Congress of Women met and campaigned for women's votes.

  • The first meeting had over 1,000 attendees.
• Primary education was expanded.

  • Spending went from 5 million roubles in 1896 to 82 million in 1914.
  • 44% of 8-11 year-olds were receiving primary education in 1911 with two-thirds of those being male.
• Education numbers were higher in towns and cities.
• Secondary and higher education remained for the elite although university places grew to 69,000 in 1914.

  • In 1860, there were only 5,000 university places.
• Authors like Anton Chekhov wrote about the problems in Russian society.

  • The Cherry Orchard was an example of this.
• Classics such as War and Peace by Tolstoy and Crime and Punishment by Dostoevsky were mass produced cheaply.
• The period just before the revolution is known as the "silver age" of Russian culture due to a relaxation in censorship and modernisation.

  • Music by Stravinsky, ballets by Diagilev and paintings by Malevich were all examples of the silver age.