Psychopathology

• Psychopathology


  The study of mental disorders
• According to the mental health charity, MIND, psychological disorders affect 1 in 4 people over the course of their lives
• Mixed anxiety & depression is the most common mental disorder in Britain, with 7.8% of people meeting criteria for diagnosis
• 1. 10% of people in England will experience depression in their lifetime
• The poorer and more disadvantaged are disproportionately affected by common mental health problems and their adverse consequences
• Mixed anxiety and depression has been estimated to cause one fifth of days lost from work in Britain
• The World Health Organisation ranks mental disorders as one of the leading causes of disease and disability worldwide
• Abnormality


  Behaviour or feelings that are considered outside the normal range
• Definitions of Abnormality


  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
  • Failure to function adequately
• Statistical infrequency


  • Any behaviour which is rare or uncommon in the population should be classed as abnormal
  • Can be used to identify a segment of the population in need of psychological help
• Deviation from social norms


  • Behaviour that violates unwritten social rules and causes observer discomfort or punishment
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  • Failure to meet criteria for good mental health like self-attitudes, autonomy, environmental mastery, accurate perception of reality, integration, and personal growth
• Failure to function adequately


  • Inability to get through day-to-day life, including personal distress, maladaptive behaviour, unpredictability, irrationality, observer discomfort, violation of moral standards, and unconventionality
• Phobia


  A type of anxiety disorder characterised by excessive and irrational fear of a specific object or situation
• Characteristics of phobia


  • Emotional: Fear is the main emotion
  • Cognitive: Selective attention and irrational beliefs
  • Behavioural: Avoidance and panic
• Depression


  A type of mood disorder characterised by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness and worthlessness, alongside physical changes
• Characteristics of depression


  • Emotional: Intense sadness, loss of pleasure
  • Cognitive: Impaired concentration and negative thoughts
  • Behavioural: Reduced energy and activity, changes to appetite and sleep
• Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD)


  An anxiety disorder characterised by obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviours)
• Characteristics of OCD


  • Emotional: Excessive fear, anxiety, disgust, guilt
  • Cognitive: Obsessions are repetitive and intrusive
  • Behavioural: Performing compulsions to relieve anxiety
• Behaviourism


  An approach in psychology that focuses on the role of external, environmental factors in learning, rather than internal mental processes
• Two-process model


  Explanation for phobia formation involving classical conditioning (learning by association) and operant conditioning (learning from consequences)
• Phobia


  A huge negative impact on the sufferer's life, as they are time-consuming and may lead to social difficulties
• Behaviourism


  An approach in psychology that looks at how humans and other animals learn from the environment, focusing on the role of external, environmental factors rather than internal mental processes
• Two-process model


  The behaviourist explanation for phobia, involving classical conditioning (learning by association) and operant conditioning (learning from consequences)
• Classical conditioning of phobia

  Neutral stimulus paired with unconditioned stimulus that produces fear response, resulting in conditioned stimulus eliciting conditioned response of fear
• Operant conditioning of phobia

  Avoidance of feared object is negatively reinforced, maintaining the phobia
• Phobia formation experiment


  • Watson and Raynor's "Little Albert" study
• Behaviourist theories cannot explain why some phobias are more common than others, suggesting an evolutionary basis
• Systematic desensitisation


  Gradual exposure to feared object, combined with relaxation techniques, to replace fear with relaxation
• Flooding


  Rapid, prolonged exposure to feared object, preventing avoidance, to extinguish the conditioned fear response
• Flooding is more effective than systematic desensitisation for simple phobias, but may be too anxiety-provoking for some patients
• Cognitive approach


  Focuses on internal mental processes, believing irrational thinking leads to warped worldview and mental disorders like depression
• Ellis' ABC model


  Activating event, Belief, Consequences - irrational beliefs about events lead to unhealthy emotional and behavioural consequences
• Beck's negative triad


  Negative schemas about self, future, and world distort information processing and lead to depressive thinking
• Cognitive explanations neglect biological factors in depression and can be seen as 'blaming' the person
• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)


  Aims to change the thoughts and perceptions that underlie depression through cognitive restructuring
• Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)


  Follows the ABC model, with the addition of Disputing irrational thoughts
• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)


  Changing the thoughts and perceptions that underlie depression through cognitive restructuring - challenging and changing the irrational thoughts that characterise depressive thinking
• Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)


  1. Identify irrational thoughts

  2. Challenge irrational thoughts

  3. Change irrational thoughts and maladaptive behaviours

  4. Techniques like thought-catching and homework exercises
• Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)


  A form of CBT developed by Ellis that follows the ABC model with D - dispute (challenging irrational thoughts using empirical and logical dispute) and E - effect (measuring the effects of the disputation on mood, anxiety and behaviour)