attachment

• an attachment is a strong, long-lasting emotional tie or bond between two people
• reciprocity : the actions of one person get a response from the other person, although it might not be the same action
• interactional synchrony : behavior is synchronised when it is carried out at the same time
• Meltzoff and Moore (1977) conducted a controlled observation with infants that are 2-3 weeks old. the adult displayed three facial expressions , and the infant copied. A study found the same at three days old, suggesting it is innate

  
  

  evaluation -

  +a controlled observation so high control

  +filmed so it can be checked for inter-rater-reliability

  -not all studies found this, less reliable

  -reduce generalisability as it is not a care giver doing the facial expressions
• Tronick et al (1979) conducted an experiment where the care giver would be unresponsive to the baby for a short period of time. they found were upset and confused when the care giver did not respond . this shows babies are not passive in their interactions with care givers 


  evaluation -

  + controlled observation so internally valid

  -artificial environment so lacks ecological validity

  + replicated and found the same

  + filmed allowing inter-rater-reliability

  -ethical issues as baby was distressed
• stages of attachment by Schaffer and Emerson (1964)

  1. the asocial stage

  2. the indiscriminate attachment stage

  3. the specific attachment stage

  4. multiple attachments
• asocial stage - from birth to 2 months . babies respond to people in the same way they do to objects . they don't distinguish between different people
• in discriminate stage - 2 - 7 months . they can now distinguish between people and things and show sociability. they are not yet attached to an individual.
• specific attachment stage - 7 - 12 months . babies show separation protest , separation anxiety and stranger fear . they have a strong attachment to one , individual , the primary attachment figure . this is the person who is most responsive to the baby's needs
• multiple attachments - shortly after demonstrating attachment behavior towards one primary care giver , babies typically extend this towards other adults with whom they spend time with
• evaluation of Schaffer and Emerson stages of attachment

  -asocial behavior was potentially due to poor mobility and coordination. they cannot show their attachments

  -in some cultures multiple attachments are formed before singl ones and parents may be judged

  -all families studied were from the same place so it lacks population validity

  -conducted in 1960's so may not be temporally valid
• Field ( 1978) (multiple attachments and role of the father )

  filmed 4 month old babies in face to face interactions with primary care giver mothers , secondary care giver fathers and primary care giver fathers . primary caregiver fathers and babies showd features of reciprocity and interactional synchrony . this shows fathers can have the same attachment , but only if they are the primary care giver

  evaluation

  + high level of control , internally valid

  +filmed so can be checks so reliable

  -but , Hardy suggested fathers are less able than mothers to detect low levels of infant distress
• grossman et al ( 2002 )

  carried out a longitudinal study where babies were studied into teens . found fathers have a different role than mothers - it is more to do with play and stimulation and less to do with emotional development

  evaluation

  only a correlation , not causation

  + supported by other studies
• Lorenz - studied geese where they imprinted to him . he concluded that imprinting is unique in that it only occurs during a brief critical period . if imprinting does not occur within 24 hours of hatching they wont be able to attach to a mother figure

  evaluation

  -cannot generalise to humans

  + influential to other psychologists such as Bowlby

  -lorenz may have overstated the importance and permanance of imprinting as some imprinted on rubber gloves and tried to mate with them , but in later life their sexual behavior was normal
• Harlow studied infant monkeys to aim to demonstrate attachment was not based on feeding . there was a cloth mother and a wire mother . all monkeys preferred the cloth mother , even when the wire mother had food . all monkeys developed abnormally .

  evaluation

  unethical

  ungeneralisable to people

  been critisised for a confounding variable as the cloth mother and wire mother had different faces
• learning theory of attachment

  classical conditioning - care giver becomes associated withh pleasure through satisfying hunger

  operant conditioning - behavior which is reinforced will be repeated . babies who cry are more likely to be fed . food reduces hunger so is a primary reinforcer and mother provides food so becomes secondary reinforcer 


  evaluation

  -schaffer and emerson found less than half of infants had attachments to people that fed them most

  -harlow found physical contant was more important then food

  -studies are based on animals so hard to generalise
• Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment has three main points :

  • attachment has survival value and has evolved to ensure survival
  • relationship with mother acts as a template for later relationships , called the internal working model
  • there is a critical period for attachments between mother and child if delayed for 12 months was useless for most , if delayed for 3 years was useless for all
• evaluation of Bowlby's monotropic theory of attachment

  • + been very influential and led to changes in the way orphanages looked after children
  • + there is evidence that early attachments do form an internal working model
  • - ethnocentric , may not be culturally valid
  • Schaffer and Emerson sound at 8 months babies had multiple attachments
  • ignores the role of the father , lacks temporal validity
• the three attachments Ainsworth found are:

  • securely attached
  • insecurely attached - resistant
  • insecurely attached - avoidant
• Ainsworth's strange situation

  • used 100 middle class American mothers and babies using a controlled observation
  • each episode lasted 3 minutes , where the mother would leave and / or a stranger would come in
  • were looking for for stranger anxiety , separation anxiety , willingness to explore room using mother as a base
• Ainsworth's strange situation , findings -

  • securely attached - 70% of USA infants. when caregiver is present they explore room using mother as a base . infant shows moderate distress when separated and easily comforted when mother returns . infant shows moderate distress to stranger
  • insecurely attached - resistant - 10% . very distressed when separated and is difficult to comfort on reunion. infant ignores stranger ,
• Ainsworth's strange situation - findings , securely attached

  • 70% of USA infants. when caregiver is present they explore room using mother as a base . infant shows moderate distress when separated and easily comforted when mother returns . infant shows moderate distress to stranger
• Ainsworth's strange experiment - findings insecure attached -resistant 


  10% of USA infants . distressed when separated and is difficult to comfort on reunion. infant ignores stranger , exploration of environment is limited as infant has difficulty leaving mother
• Ainsworth's strange situation findings - insecurely attached - avoidant

  • 20% of USA infants . explores not using care giver as a base . shows little concern when she leaves . not distressed when stranger arrives . on reunion , infants makes little effort . shows little preference between care giver and stranger