PC_MIDTERMS

• Culture


  • Communication - Edward T. Hall
  • Collective programming of the mind - Geert Hofstede
  • How things are done - John Mole
  • More or less cross-cultural - Debora Tannen
  • Storehouse or library of possible meanings and symbols - Ron Scollon
• Characteristics of culture


  • Learned behavior
  • Abstract
  • Pattern of learned behavior
  • Product of behavior
  • Includes attitudes, values, and knowledge
  • Includes material objects
  • Shared by members of society
  • Super organic
  • Pervasive
  • Way of life
  • Human product
  • Idealistic
  • Transmitted among members of society
  • Continually changing
  • Variable
  • Integrated system
• Low-context culture


  Communication relies heavily on explicit and precise language, much of the information is conveyed through words rather than non-verbal cues or shared background knowledge
• Low-context cultures


  • Germans
  • Americans
• High-context culture


  Communication relies less on explicit language and more on non-verbal cues, context, and shared background knowledge, what is left unsaid or implied can be just as important as what is said directly
• High-context cultures


  • Japanese
  • Chinese
• Universalism vs Particularism


  • Universalism: Strong emphasis on rules, laws, and contracts that apply to everyone equally
  • Particularism: Relationships and context often take precedence over strict adherence to rules
• Universalistic culture


  • Germany
• Particularistic culture


  • China
• Individualism vs Collectivism


  • Individualistic: Value personal goals, autonomy, and individual achievement
  • Collectivistic: Emphasize group harmony, collective goals, and cooperation
• Individualistic culture


  • United States
• Collectivistic culture

  • Japan
• Specific vs Diffuse


  • Specific: Relationships are compartmentalized, personal life is kept separate from work life
  • Diffuse: Personal and professional lives are intertwined, relationships are more holistic
• Specific culture


  • United States
• Diffuse culture


  • Mediterranean cultures like Greece
• Achievement vs Ascription


  • Achievement: Regards people based on their education, ability, success in chosen career, competition
  • Ascription: Values others according to their social connections, age, gender, origin, or religion
• Achievement culture


  • United States
• Ascription culture


  • Saudi Arabia
• Neutral vs Affective


  • Neutral: Emotions are controlled and not openly displayed in public settings
  • Affective: Emotions are openly displayed
• Neutral culture


  • Scandinavian countries like Sweden
• Affective culture


  • Countries like Italy
• Time Orientation: Sequential vs Synchronic

  • Sequential: Time is viewed as more linear and structured, prioritize punctuality, adherence to schedules, and completing one task before moving on to the next
  • Synchronic: Time is viewed as more fluid and less structured, engage in multiple activities simultaneously, less strict sense of punctuality or linear time
• Sequential culture


  • Switzerland
• Synchronic culture


  • Mediterranean cultures like Italy and Greece
• Inner-directed Orientation vs Outer-directed Orientation

  • Inner-directed: Rely on internal values, beliefs, and moral compass, less influenced by external opinions or societal pressures
  • Outer-directed: More influenced by external factors, such as societal norms, peer pressure, and the expectations of others, concerned with social image and seek approval from peers and society
• Inner-directed culture


  • Scandinavian countries like Sweden and Norway
• Outer-directed culture


  • Japan
• Melting pot


  Metaphor used to describe a cultural assimilation process in which different cultural groups blend together to form a homogeneous, unified culture
• Cultural pluralism


  Concept that celebrates and encourages the coexistence of multiple distinct cultures within a society, individuals and cultural groups are encouraged to maintain their unique identities, languages, customs, and traditions
• Ethnocentrism


  Tendency of individuals or groups to judge and evaluate other cultures or ethnic groups by the standards, norms, values, and beliefs of their own culture, viewing one's own culture as superior or more "right" compared to other cultures
• The more experienced a person has for cultural differences, the more that he will develop competence in working for intercultural relations and in attaining effectiveness when working across cultures