Additional

• Abstract


  A self-contained, clear and concise summary of the research including the aim, hypothesis, method/procedure, results and conclusions.
• Explain the the difference between an aim and a hypothesis.

  An aim is a general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate. The aim is the purpose of the study, while the hypothesis is a clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated and is stated at the outset of any study.
• State one occasion where a psychologist may choose to use a directional hypothesis.

  When the findings of previous research suggest a particular outcome.
• State two occasions where a psychologist may choose to use a directional hypothesis.

  Where there's no previous research, or the findings from earlier studies are contradictory.
• Explain the difference between an extraneous variable and a confounding variable.

  Demand characteristics are any cues from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the study's purpose and may lead to participants altering their behaviour, whereas an extraneous variable is any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if uncontrolled.
• What are the strengths of a lab experiment?

  High control over extraneous variables so researcher can ensure that any effect on the DV is likely because of the manipulation of the IV. Therefore, lab studies tend to have high internal validity and are replicable.
• What are the limitations of lab studies?

  May lack generalisability and external validity. Lab environment may be artificial and not reflect everyday life. May be subject to demand characteristics and lack mundane realism.
• What are the strengths of field studies?

  Higher mundane realism than lab studies as the environment is more natural. May produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic, especially if Ps are unaware that they're being studied. High external validity.
• What are the limitations of field experiments?

  Reduced control over extraneous variables due to increased realism so precise replication may not be possible. Ethical issues arise when Ps are unaware that they're being studies. Can't consent and privacy may be invaded.
• What are the strengths of natural experiments?

  Provide opportunities for research that may not have otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons. High external validity as they involve the study of real-life issues as they happen.
• What are the limitations of natural experiments?

  Can't be precisely replicated. Naturally occurring event may happen rarely and limit generalisation of findings to similar situations. Ps may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions, so less sure whether it was IV that affected DV.
• Strengths of quasi-experiments.


  Soften excited in controlled conditions so share same strengths as lab studies.
• Limitations of quasi-experiments.

  Can't randomly allocate Ps to conditions and therefore there may be a confounding variable.
• Identify and outline two sections of a scientific report.

  Any of the following:

  1. Title (determines who reads full report; must be as concise and simultaneously informative, telling the reader what the report's about).

  2. Abstract (provides brief summary of study, including details of each sections).

  3. Introduction (introduces background info on background research, leading to aims and hypothesis).

  
• Correlation


  An association between co-variables.
• Case studies are what kind of research?

  Idiographic.
• Case study


  Involves an in-depth investigation, description, and analysis, over time, of a 'case', usually a single individual or a small group, or an event.

  
• Correlation coefficient


  Number between -1 and +1 that indicates the strength and direction of correlation.

  
• Positive correlation


  As one variable increases so does the other.

  
• Case history


  May use interviews, observations, questionnaires, or a combination.

  
• Longitudinal

  Case studies tend to take place over a long period of time - but not always.

  
• Content analysis


  A type of observational research in which people are studied indirectly via the communications they have produced.

  
• Coding


  Initial stage, categorising large amounts of information into meaningful units.

  
• Thematic analysis


  A theme is any idea that keeps 'cropping up' as part of the communication.

  
• Methods used in case studies.

  Unstructured and semi-structured interviews, observations and past records, medical histories; diaries etc.

  
• Uses of case studies.

  Atypical behaviour/conditions, unusual situations, usually small samples as not many are affected, give insight into how to help, what's going on 'normally' and prevention; give in-depth insight.

  
• Strengths of a case study.

  Rich and interesting data, offer high levels of validity as they go into depth and give insight, allow researchers to study events of complex psychological areas they couldn't practically/ethically manipulate; efficient - it takes one case study to disprove a theory.

  
• Weaknesses of case studies.

  Cannot replicate findings, problematic generalisation; objectivity may be lost.

  
• Ethical issues involved in case studies.

  Protection from psychological harm, level of intrusion does not affect individual, consent and right to withdraw, maintain anonymity; follow-up support.

  
• What are the main features of a case study? (3)

  An in-depth investigation, description, and analysis, over time, of a 'case', usually a single individual or a small group, or an event.

  
• How do you conduct a content analysis?

  Sampling method (e.g. time/event sampling), record/transcribe data; analysing and present data.

  
• Content analysis can produce qualitative data.


  Involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas from data. 'Themes' will often emerge once this coding has taken place.

  
• More on thematic analysis.

  Likely to be more descriptive than simple coded content analysis to collect quantitative data.
• Pros of content analysis.

  Flexible approach - can be adapted to produce quantitative and qualitative data as required. Can avoid ethical issues as most material/studies already public.

  
• Cons of content analysis.

  Lac of objectivity (choice of categories and definitions decided by researchers), validity (reducing rich, qualitative data to numerical values reduces validity, as data may be omitted. Wider picture lost).
• Reliability


  Consistency. A measuring device should produce consistent results within itself or every time it used.

  
• Internal reliability


  Items in a questionnaire or psychological test are consistent within themselves.

  
• External reliability


  A questionnaire or psychological test produces consistent results every time it is used.

  
• Test-retest reliability


  Assesses external reliability, assessing whether whatever is being measured has remained stable over time.

  
• Inter-observer reliability


  Assesses the consistency of observations, the degree to which different observers give consistent recordings of the same phenomenon.

  Also inter-rater reliability and inter-interviewer reliability.