issue and debates

• Gender Bias


  Any example of a piece of research that over or under represents men or women and because of the mis-representation, the results are skewed. The theory or results treat one gender less favourably than the other.

  This has a range of consequences.
• what is important in gender bias?

  • How you arrived at that result / conclusion might be biased
• Consequences of Gender Bias

  o Scientifically misleading

  o Upholding stereotypical assumptions

  o Validating sex discrimination
• Alpha Bias


  the difference between men and women is exaggerated.

  The differences are typically presented as fixed and inevitable. Therefore, stereotypically characteristics of men and women may be emphasised.
• Example of alpha bias


  In his psychoanalytic approach, Freud argued that because girls don't suffer the same oedipal conflict as boys, they don't identify with mothers as strongly as boys identify with the fathers, and so develop weaker superegos
• Positive consequences of alpha bias

  o It has lead to some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and valuation of 'feminine qualities'

  o Has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain 'male' qualities such as aggression and individualism as desirable, adaptive and universal
• Negative consequences of alpha bias


  o focus on differences between genders leads to the similarity within genders, thus this ignores the many ways in which women are different from each other

  o can sustain prejudice and stereotypes
• Beta Bias


  These theories have typically ignored or minimised sex differences.

  assuming no differences without adequate testing
• Beta Bias example


  o Fight or flight response research was often carried out on male animals because they have fewer variations in hormones than females. It was assumed that it would not be a problem as the fight or flight response is the same for everyone. Taylor et al (2000) have suggested that female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight of flight response, shifting attention towards tend and befriend rather than fight or flight.

  
  

  o Kohlberg's theory of moral development is beta biased.
• Positive Consequence of Beta Bias

  o It makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access for example, to education and employment
• Negative Consequences of Beta Bias


  o Draws attention from the differences in power between men and women

  o it is considered as an egalitarian approach but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders

  o androcenterism
• Androcenterism


  This is a consequence of beta bias.

  male centred: normal behaviour judged by standard males

  females judged as deficient in comparison
• Strength of gender bias

  o Greater understanding of gender bias has put forward solutions - Cornwell et al 2013 noted that females are better at learning thus emphasising both the value and the attributes of women. As a result, this type of research helps to gender stereotypes, which is important in reducing gender bias
• Weaknesses of gender bias explanation

  o Sexism within the research process - A lack of women at senior research levels means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked.

  
  

  o the diagnostic system for depression might be biased towards finding depression in women, with the expectation that men should 'pull themselves together' on their own
• what is universality?


  • Underlying characteristic of humans applicable to all, despite differences in experience and upbringing
• what are universal similarities?

  • Basic cognitive processes / structure + functions of memory

  • Basic biological processes / brain structure
• what are universal differences?


  testosterone levels
• examples of alpha bias?

  • Preference for resources in evolutionary theory of relationships

  • Diagnosis of schizophrenia
• examples of beta bias?

  • Social influence research, i.e., conformity and obedience
• example of androcentrism?


  • Freudian theory of gender differences in the development of the super- ego
• what are 3 sources of bias?

  (i) Sampling

  (ii) Measurement / definition

  (iii) Theorising / interpreting findings
• examples of sampling bias:

  social influence - classic studies sampling - beta bias

  SZ - anti psychotics research sampling - beta bias
• examples of measurement/definitions bias:

  social influence - conformity studies task - alpha bias

  SZ - diagnosis of women - alpha bias
• example of theorising/interpreting findings bias:

  relationships - evolutionary explanations - alpha bias

  approaches/forensics - psychodynamic theory of super-ego development - androcentric
• anti-psychotics - beta bias example:


  • There has been such a beta bias resulting from sampling bias in favour of males in clinical trials of anti- psychotics. Only about 1/3 of participants in such trials have been female, a large under- representation. Moreover, only 15% of studies report the main results, i.e., on effectiveness, separately for males and females, and only half of these discussed the gender differences, so there is also a reporting bias.

  • This means that we know a lot less than we should about how antipsychotics work, especially for females. For many medicines, differences in weight, hormones and health behaviours mean that a difference in dose is required. This may result in unnecessarily high doses being given to women. Women tend to react better to antipsychotics, so may need a lower dose.
• Asch experiment - alpha bias example:

  • In Asch's experiment the measurement of conformity may have led to an alpha bias. The original task in Asch's experiment was judging line length and replications of Asch found that females were more conformist than males on this task, which led to much theorising on why such a difference existed. However, the task is one that, at least stereotypically, is seen as a 'male' task, involving a mathematical component.

  • When variations of Asch (eventually) used tasks that were (again, at least stereotypically) 'female', e.g., fashion, they found that males were more conformist than females on such tasks.
• evolutionary explanation - alpha bias example:

  • Evolutionary explanations of relationship preferences can be criticised for alpha bias on the grounds that they stress and exaggerate gender differences in relationship preferences, emphasising biological theories for differences instead of environmental explanations

  • For example, in explaining the results from Clark & Hatfield's experiment on casual sex, evolutionary theorists argue that females avoid casual sex because of an evolved desire for a quality mate

  • However, they ignore a number of alternative, environmental, explanations, e.g., that women are trying to minimise risk from attack or avoid being judged by sexist double standards.

  • The idea that women are more naturally 'choosy' than men is socially sensitive: it could lead to guilt in or negative judgments of women who do enjoy casual sex
• limitation of gender differences

  often presented as fixed + enduring when they arent

  E) Maccoby + Jacklin presented findings of several gender studies which concluded girls have superior verbal ability + boys have better spatial ability - suggested differences are hardwired into brain so are seen as facts

  E) possible date from Maccoby + Jacklin was popularised because it fitted existing stereotypes

  L) suggests we should be wary of accepting research finding as biological facts when they might be better explained as social stereotypes
• limitation of gender differences

  often presented as fixed + enduring when they arent

  counterpoint

  E) doesn't mean psychologists should avoid studying possible gender differences in brain as some suggests that the popular social stereotypes that women are better at multitasking may be biological

  E) seems womans brain may benefit from better connections between right + left hemisphere than in a mans brain

  L) suggests there may be biological differences but we still should be wary of exaggerating the effect they may have on behaviour
• limitation of gender differences

  promotes sexism in research process

  E) women remain underrepresented in university departments like science + lecturers in psychology departments are more likely to be men

  E) means research is likely to be conducted by men as may disadvantage participants who are women

  L) means institutional structures + methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender biased
• limitation of gender differences

  research challenging gender biases may not be published

  E) Formanowicz analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias + found research on gender bias is funded less often + published less by journals - fewer scholars become aware or apply it in their own work

  E) researchers argued that this still held true when gender bias was compared with other forms of bias

  L) suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias
• Cultural Bias


  Covers many types of bias. It can be used to refer to judgements and prejudices about certain cultures, or methodological biases which can lead to biased conclusions

  It occurs when a norm or particular behaviour is only judged from the viewpoint of one culture and not universally because cultural differences cause the behaviour many times to be seen as different or abnormal.
• ethnocentrism


  type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standards + values of ones own culture
• what is cultural relativism


  idea that norms + values as well as ethics + moral standards can only be meaningful + understood within specific social + cultural contexts
• etic approach


  looks at behaviour for outside a given culture + attempts to describe those behaviours that are universal
• WEIRD


  Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

  
  

  indicate cultures most likely to be studies by psychologists
• emic approach


  functions within a certain culture and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture
• individualist culture


  refers to countries such as US where people are thought to put needs of themselves first
• collectivist culture


  refers to countries like China where people are thought to put needs of the group/community first
• imposed etic


  a test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture