Crime

• Functionalists


  See crime as inevitable and universal. Every known society has some level of crime, therefore crime is an integral part of a healthy society.
• Reasons why crime is inevitable

  • Not everyone is effectively socialized into the shared norms and values
  • Complex societies vary lifestyles with their own norms and values which mainstream societies see as deviant
  • Diversified societies may lead to rules becoming blurred and less clear cut
• Functions of crime


  • Boundary maintenance (creating a reaction from a wrongdoer and reinforcing their commitment to the shared norms and values, reaffirm societies values and stigmatise offender)
  • Adaption and change (if there is no deviance, then societies would stagnate and would be unable to make the necessary adaptive change)
• Durkheim: 'All change starts with an act of deviance. Therefore, to much crime and too little crime was bad for society because to much crime threatens to tear the social bonds of society apart and too little crime means that society is prepressing and controlling its members too much and therefore preventing change.'
• Positive functions of crime

  • Prostitution acts as a safety valve for the release of men's sexual frustrations without threatening the nuclear family
  • Deviant behaviour acts as a warning that an institution is not functioning properly
  • The police do not try to eliminate crime, but rather manage it and maintain a certain level of deviance
• Strain theories


  People engage in deviant behaviour when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals by legitimate means
• Anomie


  Normlessness, the strain between the goals of society and legitimate means of achieving them
• Merton's five adaptations to anomie


  • Rebellion
  • Conformity
  • Retreatism
  • Ritualism
  • Innovation
• Subcultural theories


  Subcultures are a product of the social structure- they emerge as a result of peoples' low position in the social structure and the fact that avenues for social enhancement are blocked
• Cohen's theory


  Working-class youths commit crime because they start life accepting middle class values, they have fewer opportunities to achieve middle class through legitimate means, and they begin to suffer from status frustration (when someone cannot meet the expectations placed upon them by society)
• Cloward and Ohlin's theory


  Working-class youths commit crime because they start accepting middle class values, they have less opportunities, a decision is made to reject middle class norms and values (all structural causes), illegitimate criminal networks offer a recruitment for those who have blocked opportunities, may form or join a criminal subculture, they could form or join a conflict subculture or a retreatist subculture
• Postmodern underclass


  The underclass are a distinct subcultural group who are cut off from mainstream society because of unemployment and single parent status. Identity with jobs and family life denied- the underclass feel resentment and revenge. Due to fear of a dependency culture, benefits to the underclass are subject to cuts by the government. The underclass commit crime as a response to the above- their lives are characterised by crimogenic factors. For example, to make ends meet the underclass are forced into criminal behaviour. More-over, in postmodern societies anything goes, including what's right or wrong. Therefore there is no reason why the underclass should accept the norms and values of main-stream society.
• Marxist view of crime

  • Criminogenic capitalism - crime is inevitable in capitalism because capitalism is criminogenic- by its very nature it causes crime. The working classes are exploited within capitalism in order to create profit for the ruling classes. The working classes also face a lack of control over their lives (alienation) and these can both give rise to crime.
  • The state and law making - Marxists see law enforcement as only serving the needs of the capitalist class. Laws to protect private property are the cornerstone of the capitalist economy. The ruling class also have the power to prevent the introduction of laws that would threaten their interests.
  • Selective law enforcement - Marxists would argue that whilst all classes commit crime, there is a selective enforcement of the law. Powerless groups such as the working class and ethnic minorities are criminalized and the crimes of the powerful tend to be ignored.
  • Ideological functions of crime and law - the law, crime and criminals perform ideological functions for capitalism. Some laws seem to benefit the working classes rather than the ruling classes. However, these laws benefit the ruling classes too. The view that crime is created by working class, encourages the working classes to blame the criminals not capitalism itself. This is also encouraged by the media when they portray criminals as disturbed individuals.
• Labelling theory


  • Deviant behaviour is simply forms of behaviour that people with power (moral entrepreneurs) define or label as such. Therefore the nature of deviance is socially constructed.
  • Whether a person is arrested, charged and convicted depends on factors such as the interactions with the agencies of social control, the background of the offender, the situation and circumstances of the offence. This leads labelling theorists to look at the actions of the agencies of social control- in what is called selective law enforcement.
  • Police have typifications- their commonsense stereotypes of what a typical criminal is like, and this lead them to concentrate on these certain types. This resulted in police officers having a clear bias and had the police patrolling working class areas more intensely, resulting in more arrests and confirming their stereotypes.
  • Official crime statistics are socially constructed. The outcome depends on the label they attach to the individual suspect in the course of the interactions. This leads to sociologists looking at the dark figure of crime- the difference between the real rate of crime and the official statistics.
• Primary and secondary deviance

  Primary deviance refers to deviant acts that have not been publicly labelled. These acts are widespread and are often trivial such as underage drinking. Secondary deviance happens when the offender is caught and publicly labelled as deviant. Being labelled as deviant can involve being stigmatized, once being labelled others may come to see offender only in terms of the label which becomes their master status. After this, a self-fulfilling prophecy is set in motion.
• New criminology


  Developed as a response to the limitations of traditional Marxist approach (TMA) although still remains many TMA ideas. Like TMA; offers a structural and action-based account of crime, it focuses on working class, black, public disorder offences. The main criticism levelled at TMA is that its to deterministic, new criminology (NC) argues that crime has an element of choice or meaning to it, it's done for particular reasons.
• Stuart Hall's work on mugging

  1. An economic crisis faced by capitalist Britain led to class divisions, Afro-Caribbean became unemployed and mugging became a survival strategy. 2) Racism experienced by Afro-Caribbean community, leading them to refusal to put up with while racism making Afro-Caribbean drift into street crime. 3) Mugging can be seen as opposition to a white racist society. 4) Police, government and media create moral panics around mugging, mugging is then seen as a major problem. 5) Moral panic about mugging explained in terms of crisis of capitalism. Due to the crisis the state blames mugging as a major problem, shifting attention away from the underlying economic and social causes.
• Staurt Hall's work


  Uses ideas of new criminology to understand the increase in street mugging in the 1970s
• Synoptic link


  Looks at the role of the media in creating a moral panic about mugging, and also focuses on ethnicity and crime
• S Hall - 'policing the crisis'

  1. An economic crisis faced by capitalist Britain led to class divisions, A/C became unemployed and mugging became a survival stradegy.

  2. Racism experienced by A/C community, leading them to refusal to put up with while racism making A/C drift into street crime.

  3. Mugging can be seen as oppersition to a white racist society.

  4. Police, government and media create moral panics around mugging, mugging is then seen as a major problem.

  5. Moral panic about mugging explained in terms of crisis of capitalism. Due to the crisis the state blames mugging as a major problem, shifts the blame for societies problems onto the mugger, therefore dividing the working class on racial lines.

  6. Special force to tackle mugging, therefore A/C community provided meaning- react violently creating deviancy amplification.
• Strengths of new criminology

  • Critical criminology extends the definition of crime to issues concerened with human rights, such as sexism and racism
  • It reasserts the importance of the political economy of crime, looking at factors such as the economic arrangements in society
  • It unites action and structural approaches to deviance thereby offering a structuration approach
  • It focuses on the activites of the powerful in both rule making and breaking law aspects
• Weaknesses of new criminology

  • It offers an incomplete critique of earlier theories dismissing them rather than showing they aren't necessarily in error
  • By rejecting both biological and psychological factors as partial causes of crime, critical criminologists deny themselves the opportunity to explore many interesting aspects of criminology
  • The approach tends to romantise the deviant as a protorevolutionary ignoring the harm that is done by many deviant acts, particulary in working class communities
  • There is a tendency for the approach to explain away crime as a social construction and in doing so the reality of crime can be missed
• Left realism


  Shows that crime is a growing problem and that a significant level of street crime is carried out by working class ethnic minorities in the inner city
• Causes of crime according to left realists

  • Marginalisation - when people feel they have little or no power to change there situation which results in frustration, negative treatment by the police may result in negative treatment. Fundamental changes occoring in the class system; the underclass. The underclass are therefore marginalized in society lacking material rewards and political power, therefore turning to crime due to a feeling of resentment.
  • Relative deprivation - how deprived someone feels in relation to others or compared to other expectations. This can lead to crime when people feel resentment. Crime is more likely to follow when people feel relatively deprived. Higher level of crime is due to a community internalizing the materialist values but not being able to satisfy these higher aspirations.
  • Subcultures - some people who experience feeling relative deprivation may form deviant subcultures. Subcultures form as a response to problems of relative deprivation/ marginalization/ poverty. The existence of subcultures makes crime more acceptable. A variety of subcultures forms exist and determine the types of crimes committed.
• Solutions to crime according to left realists

  Crime can only be reduced with the assistance of local communities. However, the military style poverty of inner-city areas has alienated local populations. Police need to regain the confidence of local communities so that people feel comfortable providing them with information about crime. Crime can be reduced by improving peoples oppertunties to achieve a decent standard of living. This can only be done by reducing income and wealth inequalities by creating jobs for all, improving housing and enviorment of the inner cities and council states.
• Strengths of left realism

  • It offers a realistic theory of crime
  • Not as deterministic or crude as Marxist accounts of crime
  • Recognises that poor policing can contribute to the growth of crime
  • Offers a well round theory of crime
  • Recognises the real victims of crime
  • Offers many sensible recommendations to solve crime
• Weaknesses of left realism

  • Inadequate attention paid to the crimes of the powerful
  • Underplays the significance of selective law enforcement
  • Marxists would argue that crime cannot be solved within capitalist system
  • In many respects the ideas are not particulary new
  • Some say the approach is racist
• Right realism


  Sees crime, especially street crime as a real growing problem that is destroying social communities. They believe that people are selfish, individualistic and greedy so they assume that people are naturally inclined towards criminal behaviour.
• Causes of crime according to right realists


  • Biosocial factors (body types) - Willson and Hernstien argue the mesomorphic body types are more likely to be criminal (runs in the family) aggressive males with low intelligence tend to commit crime for immediate gratification, and leniency of the criminal justice system reinforces the biosocial predispositions.
  • Cultural factors - Marsland argues that crime is linked to a break-down of the moral fabric of society. People commit crimes because they are no longer guided by moral principles. Murray looked at the decline in family values due to the growth of single parent families. The rise in fatherless families (part of socieities underclass) is seen as a cause if crime- children lack a male role model and authority figure. As a consequence the children of single parents are often inadequaltley socialized and disciplined. He also argues that the welfare system is to blame. It has created a dependency culture of which the underclass are content to live off state benefits and crime. Wilson examines the loss of communitity.
  • Opportunity (situational criminology) - Clarke and Mayhew's approach rejects all theories of crime which look for underlying motives on the part of the deviant.
  • Choice (rational choice theory) - Cornish and Clarke, it is argued that criminals are not propelled into crime but actively choose to commit deviant acts, this is because crime is rational choice. People commit crime when they perceive the benefits to out outweigh the costs. Hirschi's study on bonds of attatchements shows those who are more likely to commit crime lack family attatchents, work commitments, getting involved in school or having a clear moral code.
• Broken windows theory


  Links disorder and incivility within a community to subsequent occurrences of serious crime. They saw serious crime as the final result of a lengthier chain of events, theorizing that crime emanated from disorder and that if disorder were eliminated then serious crimes would not occur, using broken windows in a neighbourhood as an example; disorderly town/village invites more crime.
• Zero tolerance policing


  A strategy that involves relentless order maintenance and aggressive law enforcement, against even minor crimes.
• Strengths of right realism

  • Recognizes that crimes can be deliberate and calculated, crime is a purposeful act
  • Suggested solutions that may lead to even more crime
  • Improvement on earlier individualistic theories of deviance
  • The ideas of opportunity and choice seem to offer strong explanations for explaining certain juvenile crimes
  • Had a major impact on social policy- many suggested solutions have been taken on board to try and control crime
  • Have gained practical support from home office research, and theoretical support from control theorists who are sympathetic to right realist views
  • They have had a major contribution to the study of crime and deviance
• Weaknesses of right realism

  • Opportunity/situational theories ignore the displacement effect of situational crime prevention
  • Focuses to much on street crime- neglects white collar crime
  • At times blames the victims- crime is the fault of single parent families
  • Too readily dismisses structural factors, such as poverty and unemployment as a causation of deviance
  • Rely on official statistics when they are aware they contain problems
  • Neglect female delinquency
  • Validity of right realist ideas have to be questioned
• Functionalist sex role theory (differential socialization)


  Gender differences in crime is focused in the early socialization of males and females. Parsons traces gender differences in crime into gender roles in the conventional nucular family. While men take the breadwinner role on, performed largely outside of the home, women perform the expressive role in the home, where they take the responsibility for socializing the children. This results in girls having access to female role models, but also tends to mean that the boys reject the feminine models of behaviour provided by the mother, therefore males become assertive.
• Patriarchal control (radical feminists)


  Heidensohn argues that in a patriarchal society women are controlled and dominated by men- both in the private and public spheres. (home, work, public) Hagan argues that men have greater access to risk- taking activity- increases the likelihood of engaging in deviant behavior. Other sociologists argue that women tend to commit powerless crimes such as prostetution because of their position in a patriarchal family.
• Messerschmidt's theory of masculinity and crime

  Masculinity is a social construct which men are constantly working on and presenting it to others. He believes that crime and deviance is a resource which men use to accomplish their masculinity. He also believes that different masculinities exist in society, ranging from the most dominant and prestigious masculinity (hegemonic) and subordinated masculinity which includes gay men who often have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity.
• Reasons for increasing female crime

  Alder argues that an increase in aggressive female activity is linked to changes in sex role. If society becomes less patriarchal, then women's crime rates will look similar to men's according to logic. Alder argues that changes in the structure of society have led to changes in women's offending behavior. Women no longer just commit traditional female crimes such as shoplifting and prostitution, but now commit typically male offences such as violence and white-collar crime. Simon argues that the increase in female involvement in white-collar crime linked to the increase in female participation in the workforce. Naffine argues that it is the marginal position of most women in the economy which is the cause of the rise in female petty crime. Carlen sees poverty as an important factor but not a total explanation. Carlen argues that women act rationally and follow societal norms if they have been offered a deal (or reward). If women fail to be offered the reward of decent standard living (class deal) and the emotional rewards of a family life (gender deal) then crime is more likely. Female crime is therefore likely to be committed by those who are on benefits/ low pay, and those whose relationships may be in turmoil due to domestic violence and abuse. Panataziz and Gordon increase in women in prison linked to poverty experienced by the growing numbers of single parents.
• Reasons for underestimation of female crime

  • Female crimes such as shoplifting and prostitution are less likely to be reported. The public are less likely to report female crime- females do not match up to their image of a typical criminal.
  • Female crimes are less visible and harder to detect than male crimes. However Pollak has been criticized by Heidensohn who argues that his work based on stereotypical views of women and that many invisible crimes such as shoplifting is actually committed by men. In Buckle and Farringtons observational study of shoplifting in a department store witnessed twice as many shoplifting as females, despite the fact that numbers of male and female offenders in the official statistics are more or less equal.
  • Police and judicial bias - Campbell argued that the police and courts have stereotypical views of the typical criminal. This is described as the chivalry thesis. Females tend not to fit the image- caution or let off, particularly if they conform to a feminine image. Allen argues that women charged with more serious offences are dealt with more leniently by the courts.
• Strengths of gender statistics

  • Highlight that crime statistics are socially constructed
  • Supported by self report studies. Graham and bowling found that although male were more likely to commit crimes than females, the differences were not so great as shown in the official statistics
• Weaknesses of gender statistics

  • There is some research to suggest that women are treated more harshly by the criminal justice system than men. In the case of rape trials, Walklate believes that it is often the female victim rather than the male suspect that ends up on trial, with judges seeing cases from a male point of view.
  • Heidensohn suggests that women are treated more harshly when they deviate from societial norms. Sexually promiscuous girls are more likely to be taken into care than similar boys, and on the other hand courts may be reluctant to imprison mothers with young children.
  • Carlen argues that when women are jailed, it is less for the seriousness of the crimes and more according to the courts' assessments of them as wives, mothers and daughters.
  • Empirical evidence has to be questioned, since self-report studies made use of a number of trivial offences, therefore not comparing like with like.