A set of logically related concepts or statements that seek to describe and explain development and to predict the kinds of behavior that might occur under certain conditions
Hypothesis
Explanations or predictions that can be tested by further research
Assumptions about development
Whether people are active or reactive in their own development
Whether development is continuous or occurs in stages
Mechanicalmodel
People are like machines that react to environmental input. It results from the operation of biological parts in response to external or internal stimuli.
Organismic model
People are active, growing organisms who set their own development in motion. They initiate events; they do not just react. The driving force for change is internal.
Quantitative change
A change in number or amount, such as height, weight, or vocabulary size.
Qualitativechange
Development that is discontinuous and marked by the emergence of new phenomena that could not be easily predicted on the basis of past functioning.
Theoretical perspectives
Psychosexual Development
Psychosocial stages
Psychoanalytic
Behaviorism
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Social Learning Theory
Cognitive Stage Theory
Sociocultural Theory
Information Processing Approach
Bioecological Approach
Ethology
Sociobiological
Sigmund Freud's psychosexual development theory
Reactive, Qualitative
Sigmund Freud's psychosexual development stages
1. Oral stage
2. Anal stage
3. Phallic stage
4. Latent stage
Erik Erikson's psychosocial development theory
Reactive, Qualitative
Erikson's theory covers 8 stages across the lifespan, with each stage involving a crisis in personality - a major psychosocial challenge that is particularly important during that stage.
Behaviorism
Describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience. Considers development as both reactive and continuous.
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which a response (salivation) to a stimulus (a bell) is elicited after repeated association with a stimulus that normally elicits the response (food)
Operant conditioning
A type of learning where an individual learns from the consequences of "operating" the environment. It involves consequences rather than the predictors of behavior.
Social learning theory
The impetus for development is bidirectional (reciprocal determinism). People learn appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing and imitating models.
Cognitive stage theory (Piaget)
Organismic, Discontinuous
Piaget's cognitive development processes
1. Organization
2. Adaptation (Assimilation and Accommodation)
3. Equilibration
Socioculturaltheory (Vygotsky)
Children learn collaboratively through social interaction and shared activities. Adults or more advanced peers must help direct and organize a child's learning.
Zoneofproximal development (ZPD)
The gap between what children are already able to do by themselves and what they can accomplish with assistance
Information processing approach
Seeks to explain cognitive development by analyzing the processes involved in making sense of incoming information and performing tasks effectively
Bioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner)
The child is not just an outcome of development, but an active shaper of development. To understand development, we must see the child within the context of the multiple environments surrounding them.
Evolutionary/sociobiological theory
Draws on findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an individual or species
Erikson's theory states that there are eight stages of psychosocial development throughout life
People are like machine that react to environmental input
OrganismicModel
Sees people as active, growing organism who set their own development motion.
Psychosexual Development
Proposed the provinces of the mind: Id, Ego, and Superego
Newborns
Governed by the ID
First year or so
The ego, which represents reason, develops gradually
6 years old
Superego, which includes conscience and incorporates socially approved behavior into the child's system
5 stages of PsychosexualDevelopmentThe first three stages are crucial for personality development as they are at risk of fixation
Oral Stage
The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking
Anal Stage
The primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements
Children also begin to discover the differences between males and females
OedipusComplex - wanting to possess mother; CastrationAnxiety
ElectraComplex -> PenisEnvy
LatentStage
Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults outside of the family
The superego continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed
Psychosocial Development
Extended Freudian Theory emphasizes the influence of society in developing personality
Covers 8stages across lifespan
Each stage involves a crisis in personality - a major psychosocial challenge that is particularly important during that stagethe
Behaviorism
Describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience; Considers development as both reactive and continuous
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which a response (salivation) to a stimulus (a bell) is elicited after repeated association with a stimulus that normally elicits the response (food)
John B. Watson - claimed that he could mold any infant in any way he the "LittleAlbert" experiment - he taught an 11-month-old baby known as "Little Albert" to fear furry, white objects
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning where an individual learns from the consequences of "operating" the environment
It involves consequences rather than predictors of behavior
SocialLearningTheory
He suggested that the impetus for development is bidirectional called reciprocal determinism: The person acts on the world as the world acts on the person
Maintains that people learn appropriate social behavior chiefly by observing and imitating models; or in short, by watching people which is called observational learning or modeling