features of science

• -          Theories can also be developed from making observations and then afterwards research is carried out to test them for example Bowlby  developed the maternal deprivation hypothesis and then carried out the 44 thieves study to test it
• -          theories can't be developed as a results of carrying out research for example Milgram’s investigational obedience led to him coming up with the agency theory
• -          the most important aspect of a scientific theory is that it must be testable and falsifiable
• -          theory  construction - one aim of science is to record facts but an additional aim is to use these facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict the natural phenomena’s around us – a theory is a collection of general principles that explain observations and facts and a collection of research evidence is used to develop theories
• -          you would use the empirical method meaning you would be using research evidence to help develop and find support for theories
• -          the empirical method is generally taken to mean the approach of using a collection of data to base a theory on or make a conclusion from
• -          scientists strive to be objective in their observations and measurements for example the expectation should not affect the recordings if this was happening it would usually be unconscious however the observer needs to stop any personal prejudice or emotions influencing their theory explanations or findings therefore there are some features that aid objectivity which include standardised instructions operationalized variables and the double-blind technique which prevents subjectivity having any impact
• -          Psychology relies heavily on scientific method
• Hypothesis testing

  -          research is generally conducted in order to test the hypothesis and a hypothesis is decided based on existing theories which is an idea that a psychologist has about a particular phenomenon and in order to test whether the theory is correct or not they need to carry out a study and by testing a hypothesis a researcher gathers evidence which then helps to develop and inform the theory they had and theories can be beneficial as they allow psychologists to make predictions about behaviour
• Hypothesis testing

  -          there is a cycle of research it begins with a theory they divide the hypothesis they then test the theory using an appropriate method they then analysed the results to compare to hypothesis and another theory
• Hypothesis testing

  -          replication- replication of studies is considered essential in scientific research and there is little point in claiming something is scientific unless it can be repeated otherwise the results could just be a fluke
• Hypothesis testing

  -          in order for a study to be replicable all details from the original study must be published including the procedure data and results so that's another researcher can repeat the experiment exactly and compare results
• Hypothesis testing

  -          if a study is able to be replicated it can help prove the reliability of results Because replicability gives confidence to the conclusions drawn in the research and adds to scientific knowledge
• Hypothesis testing

  -          falsifiability - scientific theory or hypothesis needs to be able to be empirically tested to see if it is false – Popper suggested that no matter how many pieces of research supports and validated theory it does not make it under true
• Hypothesis testing

  -          one example of falsification meaning one study that refutes the theory is enough to show that a theory is untrue therefore all research hypothesis and theories should have the potential to be found false
• Hypothesis testing

  -          however fraud theory cannot be proven false as the unconscious cannot be empirically studied and any interpretations are subjective
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

  -          3rd stage = revolutionary science- during this stage the accumulation of evidence against the existing paradigm now questions it and alternative theories are put forward and eventually a new paradigm is accepted and this is called a paradigm shift and this shift is gradual and does create division between scientists with many scientists resisting change and continuing to support the old paradigm for as long as possible

   
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

  -          2nd stage = normal science- in this stage there is a generally accepted paradigm which has emerged and dominated the science however over a period of time evidence is found that appears to contradict their dominant paradigm

   
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

  -          1st  stage = pre science – during pre science there is a variety of theories that attempt to explain a phenomenon but there is no widely accepted theory or paradigm

   
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

  -          Kuhn suggested that science developed through 3 stages
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

  -          paradigms are not fixed and they do change as new evidence questions the adequacy of the existing paradigm until eventual enough evidence is gathered that existing paradigm is replaced by another paradigm
• paradigms and paradigm shifts

  -          a paradigm is a general theory or law that is accepted by the majority of scientists in a particular field of study