Learning theories

• Sutherland's differential association theory argues that criminal behaviour is learnt within the family and peer groups. It is the result of two factors: imitation of criminal acts, and learned attitudes, such as a disregard for law and order.
• A strength of Sutherland's theory is that it is supported by the fact that crime often runs in the family. Those with criminal parents are more likely to become criminals themselves, reinforcing the idea that they learn behaviour.
• Another strength of Sutherland's theory is that Matthews found that juvenile delinquents are more likely to have friends that commit antisocial acts, indicating that they might learn behaviour from those around them. However, is this a cause, or effect? It might be that juvenile delinquents are surrounding themselves with similarly minded individuals?
• A strength of Sutherland's theory is that not everyone who learns to become a criminal actually becomes one. Therefore, there should be some other process responsible for deciding someone's behaviour.
• Operant learning theory is the work of BF Skinner, who theorises that a particular behaviour results in a reward.
• Behaviourism: Cause of someone's behaviour lies in the reinforcement and punishments that shape it. Differential reinforcement theory (Jeffrey) states that if there are more rewarding consequences than punishable ones, people will be more likely to turn to crime.
• A strength of operant learning theory is that Skinner studied animals including rats, and found that they were associating certain behaviours with reward, or punishment. Some human behaviour is also learned this way.
• Another strength of operant theory is that it can be applied to offending. (see Jeffrey)
• A limitation of operant theory is that the research was conducted on animals, that are not a suitable model for human criminality or behaviour.
• Operant learning theory is also reductionist - it explains human behaviour as truly environmental, neglecting cognitive processes such as thinking and traumatic experiences.
• Operant learning theory is determinist. It doesn't believe that humans have free will to decide what they are going to do considering the situation.
• Bandura's social learning theory says that behaviour is learned through models. He illustrated this through multiple studies with children aged 4-5, and found that if a child had witnessed an adult model abusing a Bobo doll, they replicated the actions.
• A strength of Bandura's theory is that unlike Skinner, he acknowledges that we are social beings, not just programmed responders to environmental input. This means the theory is more realistic and can provide answers to explain and prevent criminal behaviour in the first place.
• Another strength of Bandura's theory is its showcasing of role models' influence over children. This can provide practical solutions to crime.
• A limitation of Bandura's theory is that it lacks ecological validity. The doll was unfamiliar to the child, it wasn't life-like, and it didn't respond to the child.
• Bandura's theory also provides issues concerning the legal definition. The law says that we have free will, but saying that we only respond to what we know might reduce responsibility of criminals in the minds of the courts
• Another limitation of Bandura's theory is that not all observed behaviour is imitable. Films like Ocean's Eleven may glamorise theft, but the elaborate heist is not easily replicable.
• Operant learning theory has been applied to criminology through token economy systems.
• Positive reinforcement: a behaviour is more likely to occur to get a positive reward (e.g. a child will complete their homework to be rewarded with a chocolate)
• Negative reinforcement: a behaviour is more likely to occur to avoid a negative consequence (e.g. a child will complete their homework to avoid getting a detention from a teacher).
• A token economy works in this way:

  The institution draws up a list of desirable behaviours such as obeying the rules. When the offender behaves in the desired way, they earn a token. Tokens may be exchanged for rewards such as phone calls or television. Through this selective reinforcement, good behaviour becomes more likely and undesirable behaviour less likely.
• Fo and O'Donnell (1975) found a buddy system in which adult volunteers reinforced socially acceptable behaviour to a young offender and improved the behaviour.
• Some studies show that token economy systems are useful up until the reinforcement stops. However, even when these systems have stopped, most criminals will return to prison more slowly than if they weren't in place.
• Token economies are also more effective at controlling prisoners and making their behaviour more manageable.
• There have been many cases in the USA of food and drink being withheld from misbehaving prisoners; this can be a breach of human right.