final exam terms

• Sample


  A smaller set of cases a researcher selects from a larger pool and generalizes to the population
• Census


  An attempt to count everyone in a target population
• Nonrandom sample


  A type of sample in which the sampling elements are selected using something other than a mathematically random process
• Haphazard sampling


  A type of nonrandom sample in which the researcher selects anyone they happen to come across
• Quota sampling


  A type of nonrandom sample in which the researcher first identifies general categories into which cases or people will be selected then selects a predetermined number of cases in each category
• Purposive sampling


  A type of nonrandom sample in which the researcher uses a wide range of methods to locate all possible cases of a highly specific and difficult to reach population
• Deviant case sampling


  A type of nonrandom sample in which a researcher selects unusual or nonconforming cases purposely as a way to provide greater insight into social processes or a setting; especially used by qualitative researchers
• Snowball sampling


  A type of nonrandom sample in which the researcher begins with one case then, based on information about interrelationships from that case, identifies other cases, and then repeats the process again and again
• Sociogram


  A diagram or "map" that shows the network of social relationships, influence patterns, or communication paths among a group of people or units
• Sequential sampling


  A type of nonrandom sample in which a researcher tries to find as many relevant cases as possible until there is no new information or diversity from the cases
• Theoretical sampling


  An iterative sampling technique associated with the grounded theory approach in which the sample size is determined when the data reach theoretical saturation
• Theoretical saturation


  Associated with the grounded theory approach, the point at which no new themes emerge from the data and at which sampling is considered complete
• Sampling element


  The name for a case or single unit to be selected
• Population


  The name for the large general group of many cases from which a researcher draws a sample and which is usually stated in theoretical terms
• Target population


  The large general group of many cases from which a sample is drawn and which is specified in very concrete terms
• Sampling ratio

  The number of cases in the sample divided by the number of cases in the population or the sampling frame, or the proportion of the population in the sample
• Sampling frame


  A list of cases in a population, or the best approximation of it
• Parameter


  A characteristic of the entire population that is estimated from a sample
• Statistic


  A numerical estimate of a population parameter computed from a sample
• Sampling error


  How much a sample deviates from being representative of the population
• Margin of error


  An estimate about the amount of sampling error that exists in a survey's results
• Random sample


  A type of sample in which the researcher uses a random-number table or similar mathematical random process so that each sampling element in the population will have an equal probability of being selected
• Random number generator


  A computer-assisted technique used for creating random numbers and selecting random cases in sampling
• Sampling distribution


  A distribution created by drawing many random samples from the same population
• Central limit theorem


  A law-like mathematical relationship stating that whenever many random samples are drawn from a population and plotted, a normal distribution is formed, and the centre of such a distribution for a variable is equal to its population parameter
• Confidence interval


  A range of values, usually a little higher and lower than a specific value found in a sample, within which a researcher has a specified and high degree of confidence that the population parameter lies
• Systematic sampling


  A type of random sample in which a researcher selects every kth (e.g., 12th) case in the sampling frame using a sampling interval
• Sampling interval


  The inverse of the sampling ratio, which is used in systematic sampling to select cases. The sampling interval (i.e., 1 in k, where k is some number) tells the researcher how to select elements from a sampling frame by skipping elements in the frame before selecting one for the sample
• Cluster sampling


  A type of random sample that uses multiple stages and is often used to cover wide geographic areas in which aggregated units are randomly selected; samples are then drawn from the sampled aggregated units, or clusters
• Probability proportionate to size (PPS)


  An adjustment made in cluster sampling when each cluster does not have the same number of sampling elements
• Random-digit dialling (RDD)


  A method of randomly selecting cases for telephone interviews that uses all possible telephone numbers as a sampling frame
• Hidden populations


  People who engage in clandestine, deviant, or concealed activities and who are difficult to locate and study
• Inferential statistics


  A branch of applied mathematics or statistics based on a random sample. It lets a researcher make precise statements about the level of confidence they have in the results of a sample being equal to the population parameter
• Survey research


  A quantitative social research technique in which one systematically asks many people the same questions and then records and analyzes their answers
• Double-barrelled question


  A problem in survey research question wording that occurs when two ideas are combined into one question and it is unclear whether the answer is for the combination of both or one or the other question
• Leading (or loaded) question


  A question that leads the respondent to choose one response over another by its wording
• Threatening questions


  A type of survey research question in which respondents are likely to cover up or lie about their true behaviour or beliefs because they fear a loss of self-image or may appear to be engaging in undesirable or deviant behaviour
• Social desirability bias


  A bias in survey research in which respondents give a normative response or a socially acceptable answer rather than giving a truthful answer
• Contingency question


  A question with two or more parts in survey research. The answer to the first part of the question determines which of two different questions a respondent receives next
• Open-ended question


  A type of survey research question in which respondents are free to offer any answer they wish to the question