psychopathology

• abnormality is a deviation form social norms, mental health, failure to function and statistical infrequency
• statistical infrequency is a disorder that if the frequency is more than 2 standard deviations away from the mean incidence rates represented by a normally-distributed bell curve.
• deviation from social norms is based up straying away from social norms specific to a certain culture.
• failure to function is when an individual's behavior or thought patterns interfere with their ability to perform daily tasks
• devotion from mental health is anything that would compromise the ideal metal state of an individual. being able to self-actualise, accurate perception of ourselves, not being distressed or maintain motivation.
• phobia is an irrational fear of a specific object or situation
• behavioural characteristics of phobias:

  -panic- heightened arousal, increased levels of automatic nervous system

  -avoidance- avoid consequence of phobic stimulus

  -endurance- remains exposed to stimulus but remain anxious

  -anxiety -psychological response to panic
• cognitive characteristics of phobias:

  -selective attention- remained focused on stimulus

  -irrational beliefs - unreasonable response, incorrect perception

  -cognitive distortions- not perceive stimulus accurately
• depression is a mood disorder characterized by low mood, loss of interest, and low energy
• behavioural characteristics of depression:

  -changed activity levels

  -aggression

  -change in sleeping/eating pattern
• emotional characteristics of depression:

  -lowered self-esteem

  -poor mood

  -high levels of anger
• cognitive characteristics of depression:

  -absolutist thinking

  -selective attention towards negative events

  -poor concentration
• obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a disorder characterized by recurrent, intrusive thoughts and compulsions
• behavioural characteristics of OCD:

  -compulsions- repetitive, intrusive thoughts

  -avoidance
• emotional characteristics of OCD:

  -guilt

  -depression

  -disgust

  -anxiety
• cognitive characteristics of OCD:

  -obsessive thoughts

  -patients acknowledgement of irrational anxiety

  -development of strategies to deal with obsession
• 2 ways to use the behavioural approach to TREAT phobias is systematic desensitisation, reciprocal inhibition and flooding
• systematic desensitisation is a form of exposure therapy that gradually exposes the phobia.

  it relies on counterconditioning i.e. learning a new repose to phobic stimulus
• reciprocal inhibition is when patients and therapists draw upon anxiety hierarchy together, making up a situation involving phobic stimulus and ordered from most to least nerve-wrecking .

  therapist uses relaxing techniques and they work up the hierarchy until there at the highest level and calm
• flooding is done in one session, a form of exposure therapy and is immediate exposure to phobia.

  in a secure environment so cannot leave and without an option of avoidance behaviour.

  aim is for patient to realise phobia is harmless

  most effective therapy
• research studies on treating phobias: Little Albert

  -exposed a rat (NS) producing no response

  -then paired it with a loud bang (UCS)

  -this produced the UCR with fear

  -operant conditioning happens when a behaviour is rewarded/punishment
• Becks study was used with the cognitive approach to explain depression
• Beck developed a cognitive explanation of depression which has three components: cognitive bias; negative self-schemas; the negative triad.
• negative self-schema, patients interrupt all information about themselves in a negative light, lowering self-confidence
• cognitive bias- people are more likely to focus on the negative aspects of a situation, while ignoring the positives. They are prone to distorting and misinterpreting information.
• Ellis ABC model:

  A= Activating event

  B= leads to irrational Belief

  C= resulting in emotional Consequence
• negative triad-  irrational view of ourselves, our future and the world around us. 
• cognitive approach to EXPLAIN depression is cognitive behaviour therapy, Becks CBT, Ellis ration emotive behaviour therapy and behavioural activation
• cognitive behaviour therapy challenges irrational thoughts, replicating them with more productive behaviour, thus treating depression.
• Becks CBT- aimed to help patients with depression by identifying and challenging irrational thoughts. can be guided by cognitive triad of automatic negative thoughts, faulty information processing and negative self-schemas.
• Ellis rational emotive behaviour therapy- aims to change the irrational belief and break the link between negative life events and depression
• behavioural activation is when patients are encouraged to engage in enjoyable activities, to provide further counter-evidence for their irrational beliefs.
• biological approach to EXPLAIN OCD:

  the genetic explanation, thought the diathesis-stress model, suggest some have a genetic vulnerability towards developing depression.
• Lewis found that his OCD patients had a higher than normal level of serotonin in their brains
• OCD is polygenic and is associated with the functioning of neurotransmitters e.g. dopamine and neurotransmitters
• 5HT1-D beta increases a person vulnerability to OCD and efficiency of serotonin transport across synapses
• biological approach to TREAT depression:

  -SSRIs, (selective re-uptake inhibitors) act as a serotonin system by preventing the re-uptake and breaking down of serotonin in by the presynaptic neurone.

  -so conc of serotonin in synapse increases, causing post-synaptic neurone to always be stimulated
• tricyclic are those who don't reposing well to SSRIs.

  noradrenaline, re-uptake inhibitors increases the concentration of the noradrenaline neurotransmitter in the brain.