Upper stories of houses jutted out into the street, limiting light and air circulation
Sewage in the streets
Manure and animals
Medieval houses
Damp and mouldy, smoky, dirty, unhygienic
What people thought caused disease in the Medieval period
God
Supernatural
Miasma
4 humours
Black Death
Arrived in England in 1348, killed over a third of the population, had two main forms: bubonic and pneumonic
Great Plague
Occurred in 1665, killed one sixth of London
Attempts to stop the spread of the Great Plague
1. Houses were marked and quarantined
2. Searchers of the dead determined the cause of death and collected bodies at night
Doctors still had no idea what really caused illness and disease, it was only the onset of winter that caused the Great Plague to come to an end
Effects of industrialisation
Industrial towns grew rapidly and became overcrowded
No regulations around standards of living, sewage, and water supply
Cholera
First appeared in 1831, bacterial infection caused by contaminated food or water, over 100,000 people died in first 2 epidemics
Typhoid
Caused by poor sanitation and lack of cleanliness in 19th century, the bacterium that caused it was discovered in 1884
By the end of the 19th century, knowledge of what caused disease and illness had improved considerably
Other diseases
Tuberculosis
Influenza - Spanish Flu
HIV/AIDS
Tuberculosis
In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was associated with poor housing and unhealthy working conditions
The tuberculosis bacterium was isolated in 1882, but finding a cure was difficult
In the 1950s the introduction of the streptomycin antibiotic, along with better sanitation and vaccination, reduced cases significantly
Early methods of prevention - the Black Death
Hippocrates believed in diet, exercise, and rest
Romans built reservoirs to bring fresh water to towns
The church ordered people to take part in processions and pray for forgiveness
Some people thought bathing increased disease
Streets were cleaned because of the miasma theory
Alchemy
There was often very little difference between scientists and alchemists in medieval times, many were searching for the 'elixir of life'
Soothsayers
Most people relied on the local 'wise women' who built up knowledge of sickness and disease over several generations
Late 18th and early 19th century prevention
Rise of the scientific method: microscopes, stethoscopes, scientific papers being published
John Snow
Observed that in an area of very high cholera cases, the men working in the brewer who drank beer instead of water didn't get sick, so he forced them to stop using the contaminated water pump
Edward Jenner
Observed that local dairy maids seemed to be immune from smallpox and believed they had immunity because they'd had cowpox, so he inoculated a small boy with cowpox and then smallpox - it had no effect
In the late 19th century, tens of thousands of people protested against compulsory smallpox vaccines, thinking it was unhealthy or unchristian
In 1995 a handful of scientists claimed that MMR was causing autism in children, vaccination levels fell and disease cases rose, this was essentially a debate about choice
Germ theory
LouisPasteur discovered that germs caused disease, and RobertKoch identified specific bacteria and realised that antibodies can help to destroy bacteria
Traditional medieval treatments
Wisewomen's herbal remedies
Monasteries' infirmaries and herbal cures
Priests' power of prayer or pilgrimages
Barber surgeons' minor operations
Bleeding
Patients were bled to rebalance the humours, involving cutting or leeching
Zodiac charts
Used to advise on the best time and way to treat a patient based on their star sign
Urine analysis
Colour, smell and taste of patients' urine determined the imbalance in their humours
Barber surgeons
Considered lower status than physicians, who were more educated and focused on diagnosing and treating
Problems: no effective anaesthetics or antiseptics, loss of blood
By the end of the Middle Ages there is some evidence that surgery was improving, with Italian surgeon Theodoric suggesting using bandages soaked in wine to clean wounds as a mild antiseptic
Undergoing surgery still remained extremely risky, as surgeons had no idea that dirt carried disease and were extremely unhygienic
Medical Renaissance
People began to question the teachings of ancient experts like Galen
Vesalius made discoveries in anatomy that highlighted key errors made by Galen
Artists made detailed analytical drawings to help physicians deepen their understandings
Invention of the printingpress meant medical books could be produced more easily and quickly
Liston
Carried out first operation with anaesthetics, but had a 300% mortality rate
19th century methods of anaesthesia
Laughing gas
Ether
Chloroform
James Simpson
First used chloroform successfully in 1847, tried it out on himself and his friends until he found a dose that knocked him out
Some surgeons wanted their patients to stay awake so they could fight for their lives, and many religious people felt that pain had been sent by God and shouldn't be tampered with
Joseph Lister
Discovered that carboxylic spray was a very effective antiseptic in 1867, developed antiseptic surgery by spraying medical instruments
Blood transfusions
In 1901 Landsteiner discovered blood groups, allowing blood transfusions, and in 1938 a national blood transfusion service was set up
Marie Curie
Discovered two new radioactive elements, polonium and radium, which were crucial in the development of x-rays in surgery
Alexander Fleming
Discovered penicillin in 1928 but didn't have the resources to continue research, so Chain and Florey produced it for mass use in the late 1930s