Memory

• What is coding? (AO1)

  The way in which information is stored and processed in memory.
• Baddeley Research, Coding (AO1)


  Gave different lists of words to 4 groups of pps to remember;

  - Group 1 (acoustically similar): sound similar; e.g. cat, can.

  - Group 2 (acoustically dissimilar): sound different; e.g. pit, cow.

  - Group 3 (semantically similar): similar meanings; e.g. great, big.

  - Group 4 (semantically dissimilar): different meanings; e.g. huge, hot.

  Pps shown original words and asked to recall them in correct order.
• Baddeley Findings, Coding (AO1)


  When the did recall task immediately after hearing it (STM recall), tended to do worse with acoustically similar words.

  If pps were asked to recall word list after time interval of 20 mins (LTM recall), did worse with semantically similar words. Suggests info is coded semantically in LTM.
• Baddeley Evaluation, Coding (AO3)

  X Artificial stimuli: not meaningful material; word lists had no personal meaning to pps. Should be cautious generalising the findings to different kinds of memory task. E.g, when processing more meaningful info, people may use semantic coding even for STM tasks. Limited application.
• What is capacity? (AO1)


  Maximum amount that can be retained in memory.
• Jacob's Digit Span, Capacity (AO1)

  Developed technique to measure digit span. Researcher gives, e.g, 4 digits and then the pp is asked to recall these in correct order out loud. If this is correct the researcher reads out 5 digits and so on until pps cannot recall order correctly.
• Jacob's Findings, Capacity (AO1)

  Found the mean span for digits across all pps was 9.3 items. Mean span for letters was 7.3
• Jacob's Evaluation, Capacity (AO3)

  X Lacking Validity: Jacob's, conducted study long time ago, potentially lacked adequate control e.g. some pps may have been distracted while they were tested so didn't perform as well as they might. Means results may not be valid, because confounding variables not controlled. However, results of study have been confirmed in other research.
• Miller Capacity Research, Capacity (AO1)


  Observations of everyday practice e.g. noted things come in 7s, 7 notes on musical scales, 7 days a week. Suggests the capacity of STM is about 7 items (+/-2). Also noted that people can recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letters; chunking.
• Miller Capacity, Evaluation (AO3)

  X Not so many chunks: may have overestimated capacity of STM (Miller). E.g. Cowan reviewed other research + concluded capacity of STM was about 4 chunks.
• What is duration?


  How long a memory is held for before it is forgotten.
• Peterson & Peterson Research, Duration of STM (AO1)

  24 Undergrads, took part in 8 trials. On each trial the student was given consonant syllables (trigrams) to remember and also given 3-digit number. Student then asked to count backwards from 3-digit number until told to stop. Counting backwards was to prevent mental rehearsal of trigram. On each trial they were told to stop after a different amount of time - 3,6,9,12,15 or 18 secs; retention interval.
• Peterson & Peterson Findings, Duration of STM (AO1)

  Suggests STM may have a very short duration, unless we repeat something over and over again.
• Peterson & Peterson Evaluation, Duration of STM (AO3)


  X Meaningless stimuli in STM study: Peterson & Peterson, stimulus material was artificial. Trying to memorise trigrams doesn't reflect real-life memory activities where what we're trying to remember is meaningful. Lacks external validity. However, phone numbers are meaningless, so study is not entirely irrelevant.
• Bahrick et al. Research, Duration of LTM (AO1)


  392 pps from Ohio, aged 17-74. High-school yearbooks were obtained from the pps or directly from some schools. Recall tested in various ways including: 1) Photo recognition test consisting of 50 photos, some from pps yearbooks; 2) Free recall where pps recalled all of the names of graduating class.
• Bahrick et al. Findings, Duration of LTM (AO1)

  Pps who were tested within 15 years of graduation were 90% accurate in photo recognition. After 48 years, recall declined to 70% for photo recognition. Free recall worse than recognition. After 15 years this was 60% accurate, dropping to 30% after 48 years.
• Bahrick et al. Evaluation, Duration of LTM (AO3)

  / High external validity: real-life memories. When studies on LTM have been conducted with meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates lower (Shepard). Downside of such real-life research is that confounding variables are not controlled; Bahrick's pps may have looked at their yearbook photos and rehearsed their memory over years.
• Who proposed the multi-store model? (AO1)

  Atkinson and Shiffrin

  
• What is the sensory register? (AO1)


  A stimulus from the environment will pass on to the sensory registers along with lots of other sights, sounds, smells.
• What is the iconic store (sensory register)? (AO1)

  Visual info is coded visually.
• What is the echoic store (sensory register)? (AO1)


  Auditory info is coded acoustically.
• What is the duration of the Sensory Register? (AO1)

  Less than half a second, very brief.
• What is coding in the Sensory Register? (AO1)

  Modality specific
• What is the capacity of the Sensory Register? (AO1)

  Very large
• What is the capacity of STM? (AO1)

  Limited, 7+/-2
• How is STM coded? (AO1)

  Acoustically
• What is the duration of STM? (AO1)

  18-30 seconds
• How is STM transferred to LTM? (AO1)

  Maintainance rehearsal.
• What is the capacity of LTM? (AO1)

  Unlimited
• What is the duration of LTM? (AO1)

  Unlimited
• What is coding of LTM? (AO1)

  Semantic
• How are memories recalled from LTM? (AO1)

  Retrieval, transferred back to STM
• Strenghta of multi-store model (AO3)

  / Research: Shows that STM & LTM are qualitatively different. Baddeley found we mix up words that sound similar when using STM. Mix up words that have similar meanings when we use LTM. Strength of study is it clearly shows coding in STM is acoustic and LTM is semantic. Supports MSM's view that these 2 memory stores are separate.
• Limitation of multi-store model (AO3)

  X More than one type of STM; MSM states that STM is unitary store. Evidence from people suffering from amnesia shows this can't be true. Shallice & Warrington studied patient with amnesia (KF). Found KF's STM for digits was very poor when they read them out loud to him. Recall was much better when he was able to read digits to himself. Studies of KF & others with amnesia showed that there could even be another STM store for non-verbal sounds. The WMM includes these separate stores.

  
  

  X More than one type of rehearsal: the more you rehearse info, the more likely you are to transfer to LTM. However, Craik & Watkins found this prediction is wrong. Maintainence rehearsal is type described in MSM, but this doesn't transfer info into LTM. Just maintains it in STM. Elaborative rehearsal needed for long-term storage. Occurs when you link the info to your existing knowledge. Research finding can't be explained by the model.
• What is episodic memory? (AO1)

  Ability to recall events from our lives. Likened to a diary, a record of daily happenings. They are complex; they are 'time-stamped' so we remember when they happened. Memory of a single episode will include several elements, such as people and places, objects and behaviours, and all of them to produce a single memory.
• What is semantic memory? (AO1)

  Knowledge of the world. Includes facts, but in the broadened sense. Likened to an encyclppedia + dictionary. These memories aren't 'time-stamped'. Less personal + more about facts we all share.
• What is procedural memory? (AO1)

  Memory for actions, or skills; how we do things. Can recall these without conscious awareness/great deal of effort. E.g driving a car. Quite hard to explain to someone else.
• Strengths of LTM (AO3)

  /Clinical evidence: HM+Clive Wearing. Episodic memory in both men was severely impaired as consequence of amnesia. Had great difficulty recalling events that happened in their pasts. But their semantic memories were relatively unaffected. HM wouldn't be able to recall stroking a dog in the past, but he wouldn't need to have the concept of 'dog' explained to him over+over. Procedural memories also intact; both knew how to tie their shoelaces, how to walk, and in Clive Wearing's case, how to read music. Evidence supports Tulving's view that there are different memory stores in LTM. One store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected. Clear evidence that not only are these types of memory different, but they're stored in different parts of the brain.
• Strengths of LTM (AO3)

  Neuroimaging evidence: brain scan studies that different types of memory are stored in different parts of the brain. E.g Tulving et al. got pps to perform various memory tasks while their brains were scanned using a PET scanner. Found that episodic + semantic memories were both recalled from prefrontal cortex. Area is divided into 2, one on each hemisphere. The left prefrontal cortex was involved in recalling semantic memories. Episodic memories were recalled from right prefrontal cortex. Supports view that there's a physical reality to the different types of LTM, within the brain. Been confirmed many times in later research studies, supporting validity of findings.
• Strength of LTM (AO3)

  Real-life applications: being able to identify different aspects of LTM allow psychologists. to target certain kinds of memory in order to better people's lives. Belleville et al. demonstrated that episodic memories could be improved in older people who had a mild cognitive impairment. Trained pps performed better on a test of episodic memory after training than a control group. Episodic memory is most often affected by mild cognitive impairment, which highlights benefit of being able to distinguish between types of LTM - enables specific treatments to be developed.