Criminology Unit 2

• Social definition of crime - crime can be labelled through social interaction, if society said its a crime, its a crime
• Legal definition of crime - the legal system defines the crime, if it breaks the law, it is a crime
• Variety of criminal acts - fatal, non-fatal, offences against property, sexual, public order, drugs
• Definition of Honour crime

  Crimes where the accused has disgraced their family. This can include killings for conduct such as refusing marriage or being in a relationship that displeases the family
• Laws change over time - Homosexuality was illegal in the UK until 1967 now gay marriage is legal
• Decriminalisation of homosexuality - The Sexual Offences Act (1967) decriminalised sex between consenting adult males in private. It wasn’t until 2013 that same-sex couples were allowed to register civil partnerships.
• Criminalisation of abortion - Abortion was made legal by the Abortion Act (1967). Before this women could face imprisonment for having an abortion.
• Pressure Group Campaigns

  British Lung Foundation (BLF)

  • The BLF aims to prevent lung disease by campaigning for positive change in the UK’s lung health.
  • Recent campaign involved changing the law about smoking in cars with children.
  • BLF secured 50,000 signatures on a petition in 2011 and presented it to 10 Downing Street.
  • As a result, a ban on smoking in cars with children came into force in England and Wales in October 2014 by the Childrens and Families Act 2014.
• Individual campaigns

  Ann Ming’s Campaign - abolish double jeopardy

  • The double jeopardy law prevents a second prosecution for the same offence after an acquittal or conviction.
  • Julie Ming was killed in her Teeside home in 1989 and Billy Dunlop was put on trial for the murder.
  • The Jury failed to reach a verdict in his 1991 trial and in a second trial later the same year. He was formally cleared.
• Individual campaigns

  Ann Ming’s Campaign - abolish double jeopardy

  • Ann Ming began her campaign to have double jeopardy laws abolished.
  • She took her campaign to newspapers, radio and TV stations and many politicians.
  • Eventually, the government-backed changes to the law and as a result of the Criminal Justice Act of 2003, double jeopardy was abolished for 30 serious offences, including murder.
• Individual campaigns

  Clare’s Law

  • Campaign to create a scheme that allows people to find out from the police if their partner has a history of domestic violence. 
  • The campaign was started by the father of Clare Wood, who her violent partner killed. 
  • He was certain she would still be alive if she had known the full extent of his previous violent behaviour.
  • The campaign introduced the ‘Domestic Abuse DisclosureScheme’.
  • The scheme aims to give members of the public a formal mechanism to make enquiries about individuals they are in relationships with related to past domestic violence incidents.
• Newspaper Campaigns

  Sarah’s Law

  Background information

  • In 2000, Sarah Payne, aged 8, was abducted and murdered by Roy Whiting.
  • He had been jailed in 1995 for kidnapping and indecently assaulting a 9 yo girl.
  • He was placed on the sex offenders register.
  • On a trip to visit family, Sarah’s parents allowed her and her siblings to play by themselves.
  • Had they known about Whiting being in the area, they would have taken steps to protect her.
• Newspaper Campaigns

  Sarah’s Law

  Key people involved

  • Sarah’s parents started a campaign to have information about known sex offenders made available to the public.
  • The News of the World supported the campaign for a change in the law.
  • The paper published the names and pictures of 50 people who claimed to be sex offenders.
  • Produced a vigilante effect and the government refused to agree to demands.
• Newspaper Campaigns

  1. The newspaper and parents continued their campaign

  2. Another girl was kidnapped and sexually assaulted

  3. The government began to change its mind

  4. They sent a rep to the USA to see the workings of Megan's Law

  5. A pilot scheme was introduced in 4 areas of the UK to allow parents to make enquiries about named individuals

  6. Police would then reveal details confidentially to the person most able to protect the child, usually the parent

  7. The scheme was extended to cover the whole of England and Wales
• Sarah's Law


  The Child Sex Offender Disclosure Scheme
• Moral codes 

  The term moral code is often used to describe a set of basic rules, values and principles that are held by an individual, group, organisation or society as a whole.

  This may be written down, for example, in the police code of ethics.
• Formal sanctions against criminal behaviour

  Forms include

  Non-court sanctions

  • Cautions (Warning)
  • Conditional caution (Arrest but not filled as long as you follow restrictions)
  • Penalty notice (fines for petty crimes)
• Formal sanctions against criminal behaviour

  Court sanctions

  • Custodial sentences (immediately sent to prison)
  • Community sentences (combination order)
  • Fines 
  • Discharge (when the defendant is guilty but morally blameless)
• Norms, moral codes and values

  Norms, moral codes and values are unwritten rules of acceptable behaviour, which are often used interchangeably in society. However, they do have specific meanings. Norms are social expectations that guide behaviour and explain why people act the way they do.
• Informal sanctions can include:

  • frowning upon behaviour

  • name calling, etc.

  • ignoring behaviour

  • labelling behaviour

  • parents grounding a child.
• Marxism

  ● Karl Marx

  ● Political and economic theories

  which states that capitalism is

  unequal and undemocratic, being

  based on the exploitation of the

  working class by the capitalist

  class/bourgeoisie.
• Eugenics 

  • Inheritance of genes could explain the presence of simple and complex human behavioural characteristics
  • Reinforces the ideas of biological determinism. Claims that biology had contributed towards many of the social problems throughout the late 19th century
  • Such a policy has varied over time and in different countries
  • Nazi sterillisation programme = advocates higher rates of sexual reproduction for people with desirable traits and higher for people with less desirable traits.
• Howard League for Penal Reform

  • Campaigns for change in criminal justice system.
  • Its aim is for less crime, safer communities and fewer people in prison.
  • Campaigned for over 150 years and has had many successes.
  • Recent campaign is the ‘UR Boss’ campaign.
  • Aimed to improve young people’s experiences in the criminal justice system.
• Lillian’s Law

  • The campaign sought to introduce roadside drug testing devices, make it a criminal offence to drive under the influence of drugs, have random drug spot checks and give tougher sentences to those found guilty of drug driving.
  • Started after 14yo Lillian Groves was killed outside her house by a speeding motorist under the influence of cannabis.
  • Her parents collected more than 22,000 signatures and met with PM David Cameron.
• Bobby Turnbull’s anti-gun campaign

  • On New Year’s Day in 2012, Bobby Turnbull’s mother Alison, sister Tanya and Aunt Susan were killed in their home by Michael Atherton.
  • Atherton, Susan’s partner, legally owned 6 weapons, including 3 shotguns, despite having a history of domestic violence.
  • Atherton did have the guns removed after his last domestic violence incident but had them returned to him.
  • Atherton killed himself after the triple murder.
• Bobby Turnbull’s anti-gun campaign

  • Bobby Turnbull started the campaign to change the gun laws and also sought to have a gun hotline established for people to report concerns.
  • He launched a petition, which gained 20,000 signatures, regularly appeared in the media seeking support and lobbied MPs for the changes.
  • As a result of his campaign, amendments to the Firearms Act 1968 came into effect preventing any person who receives a suspended sentence of 3 months or more, for any offence, from purchasing or possessing a firearm.
• Bradford Telegraph and Argus - Road Safety Campaign

  • Campaign to try and improve road safety.
  • The Bradford Telegraph and Argus newspaper.
  • It encouraged readers to send dash-cam videos of examples of dangerous driving.
  • As a result of this the police began ‘Operation Steerside’, to crack down on dangerous driving.
  • To date this has led to 8,000 drivers being caught breaking the law by the roads policing team.
• Genetic Theories - XYY Theory

  The XYY Theory suggests that some crimes might be attributable to a chromosomal abnormality. People regularly have 46 chromosomes, 44 of which determine the shape and construction of our body and 2 that determine our sex, XX = female, XY = male. Variety of chromosomal abnormalities including having an extra Y chromosome (XYY).
• Age of criminal responsibility in the UK is 10.

  Canada = 12, Bangladesh = 9 and China = 16.
• Diminished responsibility/Acted under loss of control

  Despite a murder taking place with the appropriate actus reas (guilty act) and

  mens rea (guilty mind), the law allows an alternative charge of manslaughter.
• Capital punishment 

  Executing someone as a punishment for a specific crime after due process, going through the correct legal proceedings, or a legal trial. The rich made the laws in their favour. Reasons faded as human rights were established
• Deviant behaviour

  Not always something negative, nor is it always frowned upon by society
• Basic forms of rule-breaking behaviour

  • Admired behaviour
  • Odd behaviour
  • Bad behaviour
• Admired behaviour


  Deviant but considered good or admirable, for example saving a life while putting own at risk, as most people would not do so
• Odd behaviour


  Deviant by being odd or different from what is considered the norm, for example living with an excessive number of cats
• Bad behaviour

  Deviant because it is bad, for example assaulting a pensioner
• There is an overlap between some of these types, for example, behaviour that is both odd and bad such as exposing yourself in public
• Some acts may be deviant but not criminal, for example shouting in a library
• Some acts are classed as criminal but may not be deviant, for example keeping excess change given by mistake
• Some acts are considered both criminal and deviant, for example, murder