12.3 Environmental Degradation

• Pollution

  Introduction of harmful substances or energy into the environment, often by humans.
• Pollution Externality Gradient and Field

  -Greatest extent of harm from pollution will be closest to the source, as you get further from the source the extent of impact will reduce.

  -Model works well for land pollution, e.g mining, however not always this clear cut.

  
• Kuznets Curve

  -Level of pollution linked to level of development

  LIC-focus is on output, lack of structures in place, costs over environment.

  HIC-regulations, technology (renewables), education and awareness.

  
• Incidental vs Sustained Pollution

  Incidental=one off event

  Sustained=continuous
• Point vs Non-Point Source

  Point=specific area or location that is polluted

  Non-Point=spread out, location of pollution source can't be pin pointed.
• Nature of Air Pollution

  -Introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials into the Earth's atmosphere.

  -Can harm living organisms, causing death and disease, and can affect the natural and built environment.

  -Anthropogenic (human impact).
• Causes of Air Pollution

  Procedural Inequality-developments have occurred faster than the laws can be put in place, e.g Niger Delta.

  -Incidental pollution events, e.g Chernobyl.

  Primary-normally from a process, e.g carbon monoxide from cars, sulphur dioxide etc.

  Secondary-when primary pollutants react, e.g photochemical smog.
• Solutions to Air Pollution

  -CCS schemes in FF's energy plants.

  -Giant green walls (dust pollution).

  -Targets in place, e.g Paris Agreement.

  -Banning of new diesel cars sold (UK-2030).

  -Green/ethical business practices.
• Nature of Land Pollution

  -Waste products and by-products simply dumped onto the ground or buried in landfill sites.

  -Deterioration of the earths land surfaces, at and below ground level.
• Causes of Land Pollution

  -Deforestation and soil erosion.

  -Agriculture activities, e.g toxic fertilisers.

  -Mining and extraction of minerals.

  -Over crowded land fills.

  -Development of industrial activities.

  -Nuclear waste.
• Solutions to Land Pollution

  -Supermarkets bag for life scheme.

  -Converting waste into energy, e.g modern incinerators.

  -Bring back scheme.

  -Re-usable milk bottles.
• Nature of Water Pollution

  Contamination of water bodies when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
• Causes of Water Pollution

  -Domestic sewage, e.g detergent, micro plastics, metals.

  -Organic sewage, e.g animal and human waste, nitrates, silage.

  -Effluent disposal, e.g domestic/industrial.

  -Disposing waste in waterways
• Solutions to Water Pollution

  -Improve sanitation

  -Legislation

  -Fines

  -Education

  -Restriction on chemicals

  -Protect water sources

  -Purify water

  -Engineering
• Pollution Facts

  Air-91% of the worlds population are breathing in polluted air every day, 10 of the 15 most polluted cities are in India.Land-3.2bn people worldwide are negatively impacted by land pollution, over 75% of the land area on earth is degraded.Water-70% of industrial waste is dumped in water, 840,000 people die of water related diseases each year.
• Water Security

  Capacity of a population to have sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable clean water.

  Three A's-access, appropriate, affordable.
• Water Facts

  -750 million people around the world have access to clean water (1 in 9).

  -Women and children spend 140 million hours a day collecting water.
• Water Issues-Surplus vs Deficit

  -Some countries have more than needed, others don't have enough.

  Depends on;

  -climate (evaporation)

  -proximity of rivers

  -economic development

  -population density

  -importance of agriculture

  -amount of precipitation
• Water Issues-Management

  -Difficult decisions have to be made about how to allocate water and how to manage it.

  -Legislation (hosepipe ban etc)

  -Education

  -Dams or reservoirs ?

  -Managing river levels/protection of rivers.
• Water Issues-Pollution

  -Mining affects how potable water is

  -Chemicals, e.g nuclear

  -Fly tipping controversy

  -Farming fertilisers

  -When river levels fall, pollution becomes more concentrated.
• Water Issues-Stress vs Scarcity

  Stress-less than 1700m of water per person, per year. 2/3rds of world population will be affected by 'severe water stress' by 2025.Scarcity-less than 1000m of water per person per year. 'Sleeping tiger of worlds problems'.
• Water Issues-Economic and Physical Scarcity

  Economic-population doesn't have monetary means to utilise adequate supply of water.

  -Link between poverty and water resources is very clear.

  LIC's-walk to water collectors etc.

  -More affluent use more water in an increasing number of ways.

  LIC-agriculture accounts for 80% of total water use.

  HIC-agriculture accounts for 40% of total water use.
• Reasons for Changes in Water Supply/Demand-Physical Changes

  -Number of world's great rivers are running out, e.g Colorado.

  -Different plants need different amounts of water

  -Demand for industrial use has expanded particularly rapidly.

  -Arid and semi-arid regions experience physical water scarcity as low precipitation.

  -Amount of 'virtual water' increased (used/embeded to produce food).
• Reasons for Changes in Water Supply/Demand-Climate Changes

  More than enough precipitation for global population (110000km/year), however;

  -60% of population live inures receiving only 25% of global precipitation.

  -Arid regions cover 40% of world but only receive 2% of precipitation.

  -Climate change is increasing acidity and reducing supply in many regions.

  -Pollution is threatening many water sources.
• Reasons for Changes in Water Supply/Demand-Man Made Issues/Changes

  -Groundwater being drained faster than it can be replenished

  -Major aquifers seriously depleted

  -Global population growth has increased pressure on worlds water supplies

  -Many countries experiencing rising per person usage of water

  -As global urbanisation continues, increase in demand for potable water
• Water Scarcity

  -Lack of sufficient water resources to meet demand within a region.

  -2bn people globally suffer from water scarcity for at least 1 month a year

  -Affects every continent

  -By 2025 expected 70% of worlds population may face water shortages.
• Physical Water Scarcity

  -Inadequate resources to supply demand (demand > supply)

  -Dry and arid regions, e.g N.America associated with physical water scarcity.

  -Can occur when over-allocation/development of water resources.

  -Many water systems now under stress:rivers/aquifers are drying up, half of worlds wetland disappeared.
• Economic Water Scarcity

  -Result of poor human management of available water resources.

  -Causes by lack of management in e.g water facilities.

  -Africa and Indonesia suffer huge economic scarcity (power cuts due to inability of power plats to produce enough energy)
• Variations in Price of Water

  Due to;

  -cost of obtaining supply

  -demand

  -lack of adequate infrastructure
• China's Water Security

  -Issue that could threaten future economic growth

  -Huge amounts of demand from increased population and urbanisation

  -Water resources are unevenly distributed

  -Rainfall is monsoonal (occurs in short concentrated blocks)
• China South-North Water Transfer Project

  -Estimated that in next 30 years aquifers beneath North China plain will dry up.

  To solve this South-North water project put in place;

  -transfer 12 trillion gallons of water per year via three canals from Yangtze River to Yellow River.

  -aim of project to link 4 major rivers across entire country

  -took almost 50 years from conception to launch

  -cost $62 billion
• China South-North Water Transfer Project (Benefits/Drawbacks)

  Benefits;-supply water through droughts-decrease in over withdrawal from groundwater-less subsidence in Beijing-ecosystems revivingDrawbacks;-maybe not enough for future requirements-Chinas population still growing-Displaced 380,000 people-Pollution levels still rising in some rivers
• Other Solutions to China Water Problem

  i)Rainwater harvesting-21 million Chinese harvest rainwater for domestic use (save huge amounts of money).

  ii)Reducing water usage-repairs etc.

  iii)Increasing water prices-helps to discourage waste of water

  iv)N.China Inner Mongolia region-transferring water downstream.
• Natural Capital

  The stock of natural assets from which humans derive a wide range of goods and services and that sustain all of life on earth, often called ecosystem services.
• Land Degradation

  The reduction or loss of biological and economic productivity of land and its constituents; soil, water, and biodiversity.
• Rural Degradation Facts

  -On average 20% of global land is degraded to some extent

  -Crop and grazing lands now cover more than five billion hectares, almost 40% of the Earth's land surface.
• Causes of Rural Degradation-Overpopulation

  As a result of economic development leading to a drop in death rate.

  -Rising rural population puts great pressure on the land.

  -Unemployment, malnutrition and even starvation are often the result if land can't produce higher yields.
• Causes of Rural Degradation-Urban Areas and their Influence

  Can affect degradation of rural surroundings in a number of different ways;

  -Untreated wastewater is a major pollutant of rivers, which can contaminate rural communities.

  -Urban use of groundwater can result in depletion of aquifer downstream.
• Causes of Rural Degradation-Golf Courses

  -Pesticides and fertilisers wash off into river causing algae bloom.

  -Deforestation and loss of diversity

  -Monoculture as only grass

  -9 billion litres of water used per year on US golf courses, which leads to desertification.

  -40,000 courses world wide.
• Causes of Rural Degradation-Military Training

  Salisbury Plain;

  -Noise pollution from firing ranges (scare animals).

  -Heavy machinery ruins top soil.

  -Discarded rounds, metal and plastic etc, could be eaten by animals.

  -Air quality from vehicles + explosions.