Tec lec 2

• Informative text


  The language function is informative (representing objects and facts). 'Plain communication of facts': information, knowledge, opinion, etc. The language dimension used to transmit the information is logical or referential, the content or topic is the main focus of the communication. The form of language is logical. The text focus is content-focused. The example of the text is reference work, report, lecture, journal, etc.
• Expressive text type


  The language function is expressive (expressing sender's attitude). Creative composition': the author uses the aesthetic dimension of language. The author or sender is foregrounded, as well as the form of the message. The form of language is aesthetic. The text focus is form-focused. The translation method is 'identifying' method, adopt perspective of ST author. The example of the text is poem, play, biography, etc.
• Operative text type


  The language function is appellative (making an appeal to text receiver). The aim of the appellative function is to appeal to or persuade the reader or receiver of the text in a certain way. The example of the text is advert (to buy a product), and agree to an argument. The form of language is dialogic. The text focus is appellative-focused. The translation method is adaptive, equivalent effect.
• Audio-media text


  The example of the text are film and visual and spoken advertisement.
• Semantic Translation


  Attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the TL allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. Semantic translation is accurate but may not communicate properly. Semantic translation is appropriate for serious literature, important political statement, religious texts, etc. It is a writer/ speaker oriented.
• Communicative Translation


  Attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Communicative translation is appropriate for the vast majority of texts, e.g. non-literary writing, technical and informative texts, etc. It is a reader/ listener- oriented.
• Structure Shift


  It refers to change in grammatical structure between two languages. For instance, word order might change from one language into another, like English SVO that is rendered as VSO in Arabic.
• Class Shift


  It involves a change in parts of speech, i.e. nouns can be transferred as verbs, verbs as nouns, nouns as adjective.
• Unit Shift or rank shift

  It involves a change of linguistics unit or ranks, i.e. to change the hierarchical positions of the linguistic units like for instance changing a phrase to a single word or a sentence to a phrase.
• Intra-system Shift


  When we find items within each language that have similar meanings but they do not fully correspond within each language system, like for instance: nouns that may differ between Arabic and English in number (plural/singular), abstract/concrete, countable/uncountable and definite /indefinite.
• (1) These stations should fulfil the technical and operational requirements specified in the Operational Manual.
• (3) Warmer water temperatures affect water quality and accelerate water pollution.