AS level psychology

• Independent variable (IV)


  The variable that the psychologist chooses to manipulate or change
• Dependent variable (DV)


  The variable that the psychologist chooses to measure
• Experiments


  • Researchers attempt to control as many other variables as possible to try to ensure that it is the IV directly affecting the DV
• Participant variables


  • Traits and behaviours (e.g. level of intelligence, prejudices or any previous experiences) that participants bring to the study that may affect the DV
• Situational variables


  • Variables from the setting that might affect the DV (e.g. the weather or time of day)
• Ecological validity


  The extent to which the findings of the study can be applied to real-life settings and to other people outside the sample
• Demand characteristics


  Something about the set-up that indicates the aim of the experiment, causing participants to respond in a certain way
• Laboratory experiments have high levels of standardisation and so can be replicated to test for reliability
• Laboratory experiments have high levels of control, so researchers can be more confident it is the IV directly affecting the DV
• Laboratory experiments can lack ecological validity as they take place in an artificial setting
• Laboratory experiments may make participants take part in tasks that are nothing like real-life ones, so the tasks lack mundane realism
• Participants in laboratory experiments usually know they are taking part in an experiment and may respond to demand characteristics
• Field experiments take place in a realistic setting, so they have ecological validity
• In field experiments, participants will not know they are taking part in a study, so there will be little or no demand characteristics and behaviour is more likely to be natural and valid
• In field experiments, situational variables can be difficult to control, so it can be difficult to know whether it is the IV affecting the DV
• In field experiments, there are issues with breaking ethical guidelines, including informed consent and deception
• Natural experiments are located in a natural setting exploiting a naturally occurring IV, so the study should be high in ecological validity
• In natural experiments, participants are usually unaware that a study is taking place, so their behaviour is more likely to be natural and a valid representation
• It can be difficult to know whether the IV has caused an effect on the DV in natural experiments due to the lack of controls, so it is difficult to establish a cause-effect relationship
• It can be very difficult to replicate natural experiments to test for reliability as the event is naturally occurring
• Likert scale


  Statements that participants read and then state whether they "Strongly agree", "Disagree", etc.
• Rating scale


  Questions or statements where the participant gives an answer in the form of a number
• Open-ended question


  Allows participants to develop an answer and write it in their own words
• Closed question


  Questions that can be answered "yes" or "no" or instructions with a set amount of options
• Participants may be more likely to reveal truthful answers in a questionnaire as it does not involve talking face to face with someone
• A large sample of participants can answer a questionnaire in a short time span, which should increase the representativeness and generalisability of the findings
• Participants might give socially desirable answers in a questionnaire because they want to look good, which lowers the validity of the findings
• If a questionnaire has a lot of closed questions, participants might be forced into choosing an answer that does not reflect their true opinion
• Structured interview


  Uses set questions, with each participant asked the same questions in the same order
• Unstructured interview


  Involves the interviewer having a theme or topic that needs to be discussed, with each subsequent question based on the participant's response
• Semi-structured interview


  Involves certain questions that must be asked, but the interviewer can ask them in a different order and/or ask other questions to help clarify a participant's response
• Participants might be less likely to give truthful answers in interviews (maybe due to social desirability) as they are actually face to face with the interviewer and might not want to be judged
• Case study


  An intensive description and analysis of a single individual
• Case studies can form longitudinal studies, which extend over a period of time and allow for an analysis of the development of behaviour over time
• Case studies can collect rich, in-depth data that has details, making the findings more valid
• Case studies tend to have ecological validity as participants are studied as part of their everyday life
• Case studies focusing on one individual (or unit of individuals) can be unique, making generalisations quite difficult
• In case studies, an attachment could form between the participant and the researcher, reducing the objectivity of the data collection and analysis, which could reduce the validity of the findings
• Ethogram


  A behavioural checklist created prior to observing people or animals
• If participants are unaware that they are being observed, they should behave "naturally", increasing the ecological validity of the observation