Topic 4: gender differences in achievement

• External factors- impact of feminism

  Challenges traditional stereotypes regarding gender roles As a mother and a housewife in the nuclear family

  • Changes are partly reflected in media images and messages
  • Mc Robbie found girls magazines in 1970s V 1990s showed a change in expectations of life, in 1970 they wanted to be a housewife where is in 1990 they wanted a job first
• External factors- changes in the family


  Since the 1970s there’s been an increase in divorce rates, decrease in marriages, increase in cohabitation, increase in loan parent families (headed by women)

  • These changes make girls feel liberated as they see their parents as a role model, in lone parent families the woman may need to take on breadwinner role creating a new role model for girls to be financially independent, to achieve this independence women need well-paid jobs and therefore good qualifications
• (external factors) changes in women’s employment

  The 1970 equal pay act makes it illegal to pay women less than men for work of equal value

  • The 1975 sex discrimination act outlaws discrimination at work
  • The proportion of women in work has risen from 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013
  • Women are breaking through the glass ceiling (invisible barrier keeping them out of high-level professional jobs)
  • These changes have encouraged girls to see their future in terms of paid Work rather than housewives, greater opportunities provide greater incentives to gain qualifications
• (external)- girls changing ambitions

  The view that changes in the family and employment are producing changes in girls. Ambition is supported by evidence from research

  • e.g. Sue sharp study (the same as McRobb study of girls magazines in 1970s but with interviews)
  • O’Connors study of 14 to 17-year-old found that marriage and children were not a major part of their life plans
  • In order to achieve independence many girls now recognise they need a good education in fuller study educational success was a central aspect of their identity, they saw themselves as creators of their own future
• (external) class, gender and ambition

  There are class differences in how far girls ambitions have changed

  • Some wc girls continue to have gender stereotypes aspirations of marriage and children and expect to go into traditional low paid women’s work
  • Reay this reflects the reality of the girls class position, their limited aspirations reflect the limited job opportunities they perceive as being available to them
  • Where is a traditional gender identity Is both attainable and offers them a source of status
• (internal) equal opportunities policy

  Feminist ideas have had a major impact on the education system, policy makers now believe boys and girls are entitled to the same opportunities

  • Policies like GIST promote girls into science encouraging girls to pursue careers in non-traditional areas
  • The introduction of the National curriculum in 1988 removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study the same subjects
  • Boaler- The growth of meritocracy in school allows girls to thrive as there’s no sexists views
• (Internal) positive role models

  More female teachers/headteacher feminises education. These women being in senior positions may act as role models for girls. Giving them non-traditional goals to aim for.

  • This helps girls believe senior positions are in their domain, making them want educational success
• Internal- GCSE and coursework


  Some sociologist argue that the changes in the way pupils are assessed have favoured girls and disadvantaged boys

  • Gorard found the gender gap and achievement was consistent from 1975 till 1989 when it increased sharply, was the year that GCSEs were introduced bringing coursework as a major aspect
  • Mitos and browne support this view saying girls are more successful in coursework because they are better organised, spend more time on their work, take more care with the way it’s presented and a better at meeting deadlines
• Internal- GCSE and coursework


  Along with GCSE has come the greater use of oral exams this is also said to benefit girls because of their generally better developed language skills

  • Sociologist argue that these characteristics and skills are the result of early gender socialisation in the family
  • Girls are more likely to be encouraged to be neat and tidy which give them an advantage in today’s assessment system
  • Elwood argues, although coursework has some influence, it’s unlikely to be the only cause of the gender gap in achievement
• Internal- teachers attention


  French and French found the boys received more attention in class because they needed telling off more

  • Francis found while boys got more attention. They were discipline more harshly and felt picked on by teachers who tended to have low expectations of them.
  • Swann found gender differences in communication styles , boys dominate whole class discussion where girls prefer pair work and are better at listening and cooperating
  • This may explain why teachers respond positively to girls who they see as cooperative than boys who they see is disruptive
  • This may case sfp
• Internal – challenging stereotypes in the curriculum

  Some sociologist argues the removal of gender stereotypes from textbooks, reading schemes and other learning materials in recent years has removed a barrier to girls achievements

  • Research in the 70s and 80s found that reading schemes portrayed women mainly as housewives and mothers, that physics books showed them frighten by science and maths books depicted boys as more inventive
  • Wiener argues since the 1970s teachers have challenged that stereotype which may have helped to raise achievement with more positive images of what girls can do
• Internal- selection and league tables

  Monetisation policies created competitive climate in which schools see girl as desirable recruits because they achieve better exam results

  • Jackson argued girls do better in marketisation of ed as they work better in competitive environments compared to lower achieving boys
  • This often create sfp cud girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools they are more likely to do well
  • Slee- boys are less attractive to school because they’re more likely to suffer from behavioural difficulties, maybe seen as liability students giving school rough imags
• Internal- 2 views of girls achievement

  Liberal feminists celebrate the progress already made in approving achievement but argue more progress could be made but I continuing the development of developing equal pay opportunities, encouraging female role models and income overcoming sexist attitudes

  • Radical feminists recognise girls are achieving more but emphasise that the system remains patriarchal + conveys the clear message that its still a man’s world as sexual harassment of girls continues at school, education still limits girls subject choices and career options women ignored in history
• Identity class and girls achievement- symbolic capital

  According to feminist such as archer a reason for the difference is the conflict between wc feminist identities and the values and ethos of the school

  • in studying wc girls Archer uses the concept of symbolic capital which refers to the status, recognition and sense of work that we are able to obtain from others
  • She found that performing their wc feminine identities girls gained symbolic capital from peers but it brought them into conflict w school preventing them educational capital (qualifications) and economic capital (mc careers)
• Identity class and girls achievement- symbolic

  Archer identify several strategies that the girls followed for creating a valued sense of self

  • These included adopting a hyper heterosexual feminine identity, having a boyfriend and being loud
• Identity class and girls achievement- hyper heterosexual feminine identity


  Many of the girls invested time effort and money in constructing glamorous hyper-heterosexual feminine identities

  • One girl spent all £40 a week she earned from babysitting on her appearance
  • They constructed identities that combined black urban American styles with unisex sportswear and sexy clothes, make up and hairstyles
  • The girls performance of this feminine identity brought status from their female peergroup and avoided them being ridiculed for wearing the wrong brand
• Identity, class and girls achievement- hyper-heterosexual feminine identities


  It did bring them into conflict with the school, e.g. often being punished for having the wrong appearance e.g. too much jewellery/the wrong clothing ect

  • Teachers saw the girls preoccupation with appearance as a distraction that prevented them engaging with education
  • This led to the schools defining the girls as not one of us, in capable of educational success and less worthy of respect
• Identity, class and girls achievement: hyper-heterosexual feminine identities


  Bourdieu describes this process as symbolic violence, symbolic violence is the harm done by denying someone symbolic capital E.g. by defining their culture as worthless

  • Archer argued from the schools point of view, the ideal female people identity is de-sexualised and mc one that excludes many working-class girls
• Identity, class and girls achievement- boyfriend


  While having a boyfriend brought symbolic, it got in the wave of schoolwork and lowered girls aspirations

  • This included losing interest going to uni, in studying masculine subjects such as science or gaining a professional career
  • The girls aspired to settle down and have kids and work locally in wc feminine job such as childcare
• Identity, class and girls achievement- being loud

  Some wc girls adopted feminine identities that often led to them being outspoken, independent and assertive e.g. by questioning teachers authority

  • This failed to conform to the stereotype of the ideal female as passive and submissive to authority and bought conflict with teachers who interpreted their behaviour as aggressive rather than assertive
• Identity class and girls achievement- working class girls dilemma

  Wc girls are thus faced with a dilemma

  • Either gaining symbolic capital from their peers by conforming to a hyper-heterosexual feminine identity
  • Or gaining educational capital by rejecting their working class identity and conforming to the schools mc notions of a respectable ideal female pupil
  • Some girls try to cope with the dilemma by defining themselves as good underneath despite the teachers negative views on them.
• Identity, class and girls achievement- working class girls dilemma

  the ‘good Underneath’ self image reflects the girls struggle to achieve a sense of self-worth with an education system that devalues their working class feminine identities

  • Archer that working class, feminine identities and educational success conflict with one another
  • Working class girls investments in their feminine identities are a major cause of their underachievement
• Identity, class and girls achievement- successful working class girls

  Although working class girls in general are likely to underachieve, some do succeeded and go onto high education

  • however, even they may be disadvantaged by their gender and class identities as Evans shows in her study of 21 working class sixth form girls in a south London comprehensive
  • She found the girls wanted to go to uni to increase their earning power, however this was not for themselves but to help their families
  • The motivation reflected their wc feminine identities
• Identity class and girls achievement-, successful working class girls

  Skegg caring is a crucial part of this identity and the girls in Evans study wish to remain at home and to contribute to their families

  • Economic necessity was a further reason for living at home, cost and fear of getting into debt or major issues for wc in deciding if to go to uni
  • Some students chose live at home too lower costs however this limits the choice of uni and the market value of their degree
  • Living at home was not an economic necessity. It was also a positive choice aspect of their wc identities
• Identity, class and girls achievement- successful working class girls


  Archer argued the girls preference for the local (uni) is a key feature of wc habitus, the girls showed a strong preference for the local and familiar over the distant

  • Therefore, gender identity of wc girls may be a significant part in their relative lack of success compared with middle-class girls, hyper sexuality working class girls at odds with the school, caring aspect of working class feminine identity made them stay at home to live with their families resulting in self exclusion from elite unis, limiting sucess
• Boys and achievement- boys and literacy


  The main result of the gender gap is mainly boys poor literacy and language skills

  • One reason for this is that parent spend less time reading to their sons
  • Mothers often do the most of the reading to their children so reading becomes feminine activity
  • Boys, leisure pursuit such as Dolittle to help develop their communication skills
  • Tend to have a bedroom culture sent it on studying and talking with friends
• Boys and achievement- globalisation and the decline of men’s traditional jobs

  Since 1980s there’s been a decline in traditional men’s jobs such as mining,

  • this has been partly the result of globalisation of the economy which sled manufacturing relocating to developing countries
  • Mitose and Brown argue the decline in jobs caused an identity crisis as boys believe they now have little prospect of getting a job this undermines their motivation and self esteem so they give up trying to get qualifications
  • however the decline was in manual jobs that require little qualifications.
• Boys and achievement- feminisation of education

  Sewell

  Schools don’t nurture masculine traits such as competitiveness and leadership, they celebrate girls traits such as effectiveness

  • Argues coursework should be replaced with a single exam as girls do better in coursework
• Boys and achievement- shortage of male primary school teachers


  The lack of male role models at home and school is said to be a cause of boys under achievement

  • Only 14% of primary school teachers are male
  • youguv 42% of boys said a male teacher made them work harder
  • Compensators argue this is because the culture of primary school has become feminised with female teachers who are unable to control behaviour
  • In this view, male teachers are better able to impose strict discipline. The boys need in order to concentrate
• Boys and achievement- are more male teachers really needed


  Research suggest the absence of male teaches may not be a major factor in boys and achievement

  • Francis found 2/3 of 7-8 yr olds believed gender of teachers doesn’t matter
• Boys and achievement- are more male teachers really needed


  Read criticises the claim that culture of primary school is being feminised and mailed. Teachers are needed to discipline boys she studied the language Teacher used to criticise peoples work and behaviour

  • A disciplinarian discourse- teachers authority is made explicit and visible, for example through shouting or tone of voice
• Boys and achievement- are more male teachers really needed


  Reads type of language teaches is used to express criticism

  • Liberal discourse- teachers authority is implicit and invisible, the child centred discourse involves pseud—adultification the teacher speaks to the people as if they were an adult and expecting to be kind and respectful of the teacher
  • The disciplinarian discourse is usually assaulted with masculinity and the liberal discourse with femininity
• Boys and achievement- I’m more male teachers really needed


  In Read study of 51 primary schools teachers (25 male and 26 female) she found that most teachers, female as well as male used as supposedly masculine disciplinarian course to control pupils behaviour

  • She draws two conclusions from her findings
  • The fact that most teachers favoured a masculine disciplinarian discourse of control this proves the claim that the culture of primary school has become feminised as Sewell argues
• Boys and achievement- are more male teachers really needed


  Read study of 51 primary schools with equal male/female teachers found

  • The fact that female teachers were just as likely as males to use masculine discourse to control behaviour. This proves the claim the only male teachers can provide stricter classroom culture in which boys are said to thrive
• Boys and achievement- Laddish subcultures


  Sociologist argue the growth of Laddish subcultures has contributed to boys underachievement

  • Epstein examine the way masculinity is constructed within school she found wc boys were likely to be harassed, labelled as sissies and subjected to homophobic verbal abuse if they appeared as ‘swots
  • This supports Francis finding that boys were more concerned than girls about being labelled by peers
  • This is because in wc subculture, masculinity is acquainted with being tough + doing manual work non-manual work (schoolwork) seen as a effeminate and inferior
• Boys and achievement- Laddish subcultures

  As a result of working-class culture, wc boys tend to reject schoolwork to avoid being called gay

  • Epstein observes real boys don’t work, and if they do, they get bullied
  • According to Francis, Laddish subcultures are becoming increasingly widespread she argues this is because as girls move into traditional masculine areas such as careers, boys are responding by becoming increasingly Laddish in their effort to construct themselves as non-feminine
• Boys and achievement-the moral panic about boys

  Critics of feminism argue policies to promote girls education and no longer needed. They argue girls today have it all and women are taking men’s jobs. They believe girls have succeeded at the expense of boys who are the new disadvantaged

  • According to feminist such as ringrose these views have contributed to moral panic about failing boys
  • The moral panic reflects the fear that working class boys will grow up to become a dangerous unemployable underclass that threatens so stability
• Boys and achievement- the moral panic about boys


  Ringrose argues this moral panic about boys becoming an unemployable underclass has caused a major shift in educational policy, which is now Focused on raising boys achievement

  • This policy shift has had two negative effects:
  • By narrowing equal opportunity policy down simply to failing, it ignores the problem of disadvantage working class and minority ethnic pupils
  • By narrowing gender policy down solely to the issue of achievement gaps it ignores other problems face by girls in school e.g. sexual harassment, bullying and identity issues
• Boys and achievement- the moral panic about boys


  Osler the focus on underachieving boys has led to an neglect Evie girls, this is partly because girls often disengaged from school quietly by contrast boys disengagement often takes a form of public displays of Laddish masculinity that attract attention from teachers and policy makers

  • Osler gives the example of mentoring schemes aimed at reducing school exclusions among black boys
  • She argues these ignore the problems of exclusions amongst girls which are increasing more rapidly
• Boys and achievement- gender class and ethnicity

  It would be wrong to conclude that boys are a lost cause as the performance of both sexes has actually improved considerably in recent years. Now maybe lagging behind girls but they are doing Better than they did in the past

  • McVeigh similarities in girls and boys achievements are far greater than the differences especially when compared with class or ethnic differences
  • The class gap achievement at GCSE is three times wider than the gender gap
  • Boys and girls of the same class tend to achieve fairly similar results