Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam

• Anatomy


  The study of the structure of the body and its parts, including their composition and organization
• Physiology


  The study of how the body and its parts function and operate, including mechanisms of bodily processes and their regulation
• Homeostasis


  The body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes
• Homeostasis


  • Positive feedback: Childbirth, where the stretching of the cervix stimulates the release of oxytocin, which intensifies contractions
  • Negative feedback: Regulation of body temperature; when the body temperature rises, sweat glands are stimulated to produce sweat, which cools the body
• Major Body Cavities


  • Dorsal Cavity
  • Ventral Cavity
• Dorsal Cavity


  Divided into the cranial cavity (brain) and the spinal cavity (spinal cord)
• Ventral Cavity


  Further divided into the Thoracic Cavity and the Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Thoracic Cavity


  Contains the lungs, heart, esophagus, and trachea
• Abdominopelvic Cavity


  • Abdominal Cavity: Stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, spleen
  • Pelvic Cavity: Reproductive organs, bladder, rectum
• Organ Systems and Functions

  • Integumentary System
  • Skeletal System
  • Muscular System
  • Nervous System
  • Endocrine System
  • Cardiovascular System
  • Lymphatic System
  • Respiratory System
  • Digestive System
  • Urinary System
  • Reproductive System
• Integumentary System


  Skin, hair, nails - Protection, temperature regulation, sensation
• Skeletal System


  Bones, cartilage - Support, structure, protection, mineral storage, blood cell production
• Muscular System


  Muscles - Movement, posture, stability, heat generation
• Nervous System


  Brain, spinal cord, nerves - Controls all body functions, thought, movement, senses
• Endocrine System


  Glands and hormones - Regulates body processes, growth, development, reproduction
• Cardiovascular System


  Heart, blood vessels, blood - Transports blood throughout the body, delivers oxygen and nutrients, removes waste
• Lymphatic System


  Lymph vessels and lymph nodes - Drains fluid and waste products from tissues, fights infection
• Respiratory System


  Lungs, trachea, bronchi - Gas exchange (taking in oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide)
• Digestive System


  Mouth, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas - Breaks down food into nutrients, absorbs nutrients into bloodstream, eliminates waste
• Urinary System


  Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra - Removes waste products and excess water from the blood as urine
• Reproductive System


  Sex organs - Produces gametes (sperm and eggs), reproduction
• Directional Terms


  • Superior (above)
  • Inferior (below)
  • Anterior (front)
  • Posterior (back)
  • Medial (toward the midline)
  • Lateral (away from the midline)
  • Proximal (closer to the origin/attachment)
  • Distal (further from the origin/attachment)
• Body Sections


  • Sagittal: Divides the body into right and left parts
  • Frontal (coronal): Divides the body into front and back parts
  • Transverse (horizontal): Divides the body into upper and lower parts
• Regions


  • Upper Right Quadrant (RUQ): Liver, gallbladder, right kidney (upper), pancreas (part), duodenum
  • Upper Left Quadrant (LUQ): Stomach, spleen, liver (left lobe), pancreas (part), left kidney (upper)
  • Lower Right Quadrant (RLQ): Appendix, right kidney (lower), colon (part), ovary (female), Fallopian tube (female), spermatic cord (male)
  • Lower Left Quadrant (LLQ): Descending colon, sigmoid colon, left kidney (lower), colon (part), ovary (female), Fallopian tube (female), spermatic cord (male)
• Components of a Typical Cell

  • Cell Membrane
  • Cytoplasm
  • Nucleus
• Cell Membrane


  A semi-permeable barrier that encloses the cell and regulates the passage of substances in and out
• Cytoplasm


  The jelly-like substance that fills the cell and houses organelles
• Nucleus


  The control center of the cell containing genetic material (DNA) and directing cell activities
• Functions of Organelles


  • Nucleus
  • Mitochondria
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
  • Ribosomes
  • Golgi Apparatus
  • Lysosomes
  • Cytoskeleton
  • Centrioles
• Nucleus


  • Contains DNA, the genetic material of the cell
  • Directs cellular activities such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction
• Mitochondria


  • Site of cellular respiration, where energy (ATP) is produced from glucose and oxygen
  • Powerhouse of the cell
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)


  • Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis and transport
  • Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage
• Ribosomes


  Site of protein synthesis where amino acids are assembled into polypeptide chains
• Golgi Apparatus


  Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport within or outside the cell
• Lysosomes


  Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials, cellular debris, and foreign invaders
• Cytoskeleton


  Provides structural support, maintains cell shape, and facilitates cell movement
• Centrioles


  Involved in cell division (mitosis and meiosis) by organizing microtubules of the spindle apparatus
• Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)


  • Regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell
  • Provides cell-cell recognition, adhesion, and communication
• Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue

  • Composed of closely packed cells arranged in continuous sheets
  • Cells are tightly joined by junctions, providing a barrier
  • Avascular (no blood vessels), but innervated (has nerve endings)
  • Classified based on shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and arrangement (simple, stratified, pseudostratified)
• Functions of Epithelial Tissue


  Protection, absorption, secretion, and sensation