OXYGENATION APPLE

• What are the causes of acute and chronic anemia?

  Acute anemia can be caused by sudden blood loss, while chronic anemia may result from conditions that lead to a gradual decline in red blood cell production or an increase in their destruction.
• Which body systems play a role in supporting the development of Red Blood Cells (RBCs)?

  The bone marrow, kidneys, and liver are crucial body systems supporting the development of Red Blood Cells (RBCs).

  
  

  The bone marrow is responsible for RBC production, while the kidneys and liver play roles in regulating erythropoietin and iron metabolism, respectively.
• Describe the flow related to Erythropoietin (EPO) release

  1. Kidneys release EPO.

  
  

  2. EPO stimulates bone marrow for erythropoiesis.

  
  

  3. RBCs have a lifespan of approximately 120 days.

  
  

  4. The liver breaks down aging or damaged RBCs.

  
  

  5. Bile, a byproduct, is excreted via the intestines.
• What nutritional elements support RBC and Hemoglobin development, bone health, and how do the kidneys contribute to self-protection?

  1. Nutrition for RBC & HGB development: Iron (Fe), Vitamin B12, Folic Acid.

  
  

  2. Nutrition for Bone Health: Calcium (Ca), Vitamin D.

  
  

  3. The kidneys release EPO to protect themselves from damage.
• What are the key components involved in respiratory regulation?

  Chemical Regulation

  Neural Regulation
• What are the neural components responsible for respiratory regulation?

  1. Respiratory Centre in the pons and medulla, controlling automatic breathing.

  
  

  2. Cerebrum, influencing respiratory patterns during conscious thought.

  
  

  3. Hypothalamus (Autonomic Nervous System), responding to stress, anxiety, and pain, impacting respiration.
• What types of receptors are involved in chemical and mechanoregulation of respiration, and what do they detect?

  1. Chemoreceptors, including central (CO2) and peripheral (O2) receptors, detect levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and pH.

  
  

  2. Mechanoreceptors throughout the respiratory tract assess the mechanical status of the lungs and thorax.
• Among chemical and mechanoreceptors, which is considered the strongest regulator in respiratory control?

  Among these, chemoreceptors, especially those detecting carbon dioxide (Central Chemoreceptors), are considered the strongest regulators in respiratory control.
• What do ventilation, perfusion, and diffusion refer to in respiratory physiology?

  1. Ventilation involves respiratory rate (RR).

  
  

  2. Perfusion relates to blood flow.

  
  

  3. Diffusion encompasses the exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Describe Inspiration in Ventilation

  Inspiration is an active process, and the pressure is decreased compared to atmospheric pressure.
• Describe Expiration in Ventilation

  Expiration is a passive process, and the pressure is increased compared to atmospheric pressure.
• What are the requirements for adequate perfusion, and what factors contribute to ensuring blood return to the right atrium?

  In order to have adequate perfusion, there must be enough hydration, cardiovascular and muscle function to help ensure venous return to the right atrium.

  
  

  Blood must flow from the right ventricle into pulmonary circulation.

  
  

  Then the pulmonary artery will perfuse the pulmonary system with deoxygenated blood, in preparation for diffusion.
• Describe the process of diffusion in the exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the respiratory system.

  1. CO2 moves out of the pulmonary capillaries and into the alveoli to be expelled.

  
  

  2. O2 is inhaled and moves into the pulmonary capillaries and into cardiovascular circulation.
• While inspecting RR and auscultating lung sounds, what aspect of the client's condition can the nurse assess?

  While inspecting RR and auscultating lung sounds, the nurse is able to assess the client's ventilation.
• If the client's blood oxygen is low, what condition do they have?

  If the client's blood oxygen is low, they have hypoxemia.
• What is sensed by our central chemoreceptors in the context of respiratory assessment?

  Low blood oxygen levels (hypoxemia) are sensed by our central chemoreceptors.
• What do peripheral chemoreceptors detect in respiratory assessment?

  Peripheral chemoreceptors detect hypercapnia, or elevated CO2 levels.
• What are objective signs of poor circulation, and what do they indicate?

  Poor circulation can be objectively assessed through signs of cyanosis, and it would indicate poor perfusion.
• What information does assessing the client's SpO2 provide in respiratory assessment?

  Assessing the client's SpO2 will provide information on the client's oxygenation.
• What does the physiological factor mean relating to oxygenation?

  Physiological factors include conditions affecting cardiopulmonary functioning
• Describe the Definition, Causes, and Effects of Hyperventiliation

  1.Definition:

  Increased ventilation leading to the elimination of more carbon dioxide (CO2).

  
  

  2.Causes:

  Anxiety, infection, drugs, acid-base balance (acidosis), hypoxia with pulmonary embolism (PE), and shock.

  
  

  3.Effects:

  Can lead to symptoms like dizziness, shortness of breath (SOB), and lightheadedness.
• Describe the Definition, Causes, and Effects of Hypoventiliation


  1.Definition:

  Inadequate ventilation resulting in the retention of more carbon dioxide (CO2).

  
  

  2.Causes:

  Severe atelectasis, excess oxygen (O2) with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), alkalosis.

  
  

  3.Effects:

  Leads to less oxygen reaching tissues, causing hypoxia. Symptoms include feeling sleepy.
• Describe the Definition, Causes, and Effects of Hypoxia

  1.Definition:

  Inadequate tissue oxygenation due to various factors.

  
  

  2.Causes:

  Low hemoglobin (HGB), insufficient O2 availability, diseases/damage of alveoli (e.g., pneumonia), poor perfusion (shock), poor ventilation (chest trauma).

  
  

  3.Effects:

  Symptoms range from initial sensations of apprehension and restlessness to late signs such as changes in level of consciousness (LOC) and vital signs, convulsions, dysrhythmias, and cardiac arrest.
• What does the developmental factor mean relating to oxygenation?

  Developmental considerations recognize age-related changes affecting oxygenation
• What are the age-related changes in the respiratory system seen in older adults?

  1.Increased in Older Adults:

  Anterior-posterior chest diameter

  Chest wall rigidity

  Airway resistance

  Risk of respiratory infections

  
  

  2.Decreased in Older Adults:

  Cough reflex

  Cilia

  Alveoli
• What does the lifestyle factor mean relating to oxygenation?

  Lifestyle choices and habits, such as smoking, exercise habits, and nutritional decisions
• How does lifestyle impact oxygenation?

  1. Increased Weight:

  Effect: Decreased lung expansion.

  
  

  2. Lacking Nutrients:

  Effect: Increased muscle wasting, elevated cardiovascular risks.

  
  

  3. Lack of Exercise:

  Effect: Less effective cardiopulmonary system.

  
  

  4. Smoking:

  Effect: Leading cause of cancer death in Canada.

  
  

  5. Substance Abuse:

  Effect: Associated with poor nutrition, decreases respiratory center.

  
  

  6. Stress:

  Effect: Increases metabolic needs.
• What does the environmental factor mean relating to oxygenation?

  Living conditions and workplace
• What are some environmental factors that impact oxygenation?

  1. Smog:

  Effect: Impairs respiratory function due to air pollution.

  Occupational Pollutants (e.g., asbestos, dust):

  
  

  2. Effect: Exposure to harmful substances in the workplace can negatively impact respiratory health.

  
  

  3. Temperature:

  Effect: Extreme temperatures may influence respiratory comfort and function.

  
  

  4. Altitude:

  Effect: Higher altitudes can lead to decreased oxygen levels, affecting oxygenation.
• What chronic lung conditions involve inflamed airways becoming more restricted due to triggers, further increasing inflammation and mucus?

  This condition encompasses both COPD and asthma, where airway inflammation and restriction are exacerbated by triggers, leading to increased mucus production.
• What chronic lung condition, commonly caused by smoking, may result in chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema?

  COPD, associated with smoking, manifests as chronic bronchitis and/or emphysema, contributing to compromised respiratory function.
• What is a key intervention for managing COPD and asthma, involving the identification and avoidance of known triggers?

  Avoiding triggers is essential in minimizing exacerbations and maintaining respiratory health for individuals with COPD and asthma.
• How does quitting smoking and avoiding secondhand smoke contribute to the management of COPD and asthma?

  Smoking cessation is a crucial intervention, and avoiding secondhand smoke helps reduce respiratory irritants, supporting overall respiratory health.
• What inhaled medications are commonly prescribed for controlling inflammation and easing breathing difficulties in COPD and asthma?

  Inhaled steroids and bronchodilators play a key role in managing COPD and asthma by controlling inflammation and relaxing airways.
• How are oxygen therapy and antibiotic therapy utilized in the management of COPD and asthma?

  Oxygen therapy is more commonly used for COPD maintenance, while antibiotic therapy is frequently employed during COPD exacerbations to address infections and prevent complications.

  
  

  In extreme asthma exacerbations, oxygen therapy may also be used.
• How does chronic impact on oxygenation in COPD affect cardiopulmonary tolerance over time?

  In COPD, constant oxygenation challenges lead to a decline in cardiopulmonary tolerance as the condition progresses.
• How does asthma, either as a trigger or influenced by other triggers, impact tolerance for physical activity?

  Asthma, whether acting as a trigger itself or influenced by other triggers, can impact tolerance for physical activity.
• Why are maintenance and prevention crucial in preventing activity intolerance in individuals with COPD and asthma?

  To prevent activity intolerance, it is vital to focus on maintenance and prevention through appropriate interventions and treatments in both COPD and asthma
• What does the presence of peripheral cyanosis indicate, and how common is it?

  Peripheral cyanosis is rare and indicates very poor perfusion.
• When is central cyanosis considered an emergency?

  Central cyanosis is considered an emergency, requiring immediate attention and intervention.