research

• Qualitative Data Collection

  • Observations
  • Interviews
  • Documents
  • Audiovisual Materials
• Observations

  • Complete Participant
  • Observer as Participant
  • Participant as Observer
  • Complete observer
• complete participant


  researcher has first hand experience with informant. disguised as a participant (researcher conceals role)
• observer as participant


  primary role is observer, secondary is participant. their role as observer is clear but they may occasionally participate
• participant as observer


  primary role is participant, secondary is observer. the observer's participation is evident
• complete observer


  researcher observes participants without participating
• observation benefits

  • researcher has first hand experience with informant
  • researcher can record information as it occurs
  • unusual aspects can be noticed during observation
  • useful exploring topics that may be uncomfortable for informants to discuss
• observation disadvantages

  • researcher may be seen as intrusive.
  • “private” information may be observed that researcher cannot report.
  • researcher may not have good attending and observing skills.
  • certain informants (e.g. children) may present special problems in gaining rapport
• Interviews

  • Face to Face
  • Telephone
  • Group
• face to face


  one on one, in person interview
• telephone


  researcher interviews via phone
• group interview


  researcher interviews informants in a group
• advantages of interviews

  • useful when informants cannot be directly observed
  • informants can provide historical information
  • allows researcher “control” over the line of questioning
• disadvantages of interviews

  • provides “indirect” information filtered through the view of interviewees
  • provides information in a designated “place,” rather than the natural field setting
  • researcher’s presence may bias responses.
  • not all people are equally articulate and perceptive.
• Documents

  • Public documents
  • Private documents
• public documents


  eg. meetings, newspapers, articles, blogs
• private documents


  eg. diary, journal, letter
• advantages of documents

  • enables a researcher to obtain the language and words of informants
  • can be accessed at a time convenient to researcher
  • represents data that are thoughtful in that informants have given attention to compiling
  • as written evidence, it saves a researcher the time and expense of transcribing.
• disadvantages of interviews

  • may be protected information unavailable to public or private access
  • requires the researcher to search out the information in hard-to-find places
  • requires transcribing or optically scanning for computer entry
  • materials may be incomplete
  • the documents may not be authentic or accurate
• Audiovisual Materials


  eg. photographs, videotapes, film
• advantages of audiovisual materials

  • may be an unobtrusive method of collecting data
  • provides an opportunity for informant to share directly his or her “reality”
  • creative in that it captures attention visually
• disadvantages of audiovisual materials

  • may be difficult to interpret
  • may not be accessible publicly or privately
  • the presence of an observer may be disruptive and affect responses.
• Data Collection Approaches in Qualitative Research

  • gather observational notes
  • keep a journal
  • analyze public documents
  • examine data
• Ethical Standards of Qualitative Research

  1. clear and written articulation of the research objectives and description of how data will be used
  2. written permission from the informant to proceed with the study as articulated
  3. informing the informant if all data collection devices and activities
  4. verbatim transcriptions and written interpretations and reports will be made available to the informant
  5. prioritizing the informant’s rights, interests, and wishes when choices are made regarding reporting the data
  6. giving the informant the discretion to decide about his or her anonymity
• Sampling in Qualitative Research

  • theoratical
  • purposive
• theoretical sampling 


  purpose is defined by theory
• purposive


  purpose is not defined by a theory
• features of theoretical and purposive sampling

  • choosing cases in terms of your theory: selecting a sample of particular processes, types, categories or examples which are relevant to appear within the wider universe
  • choosing deviant cases : instead of selecting a case which is likely to support your argument, seek out negative instances as defined by the theory with which you are working
  • changing the size of your sample during research: manipulating your sample whenever necessary
• deviant case

  highly unusual cases of the phenomenon of interest or cases that are considered outliers and contradicts the patterns in data, or those cases that, on the surface, appear to be the 'exception to the rule' that is emerging from the analysis
• As new factors emerge, you may want to increase your sample in order to say more about them.
• u may want to focus on a small part of your sample in early stages, using the wider sample for later tests of emerging generalizations.
• unexpected generalizations in the course of data analysis lead you to seek out new deviant cases
• Major Forms of Observation Research

  • Structured Observation or Systematic Observation
  • Participant Observation
  • Nonparticipant Observation
  • Unstructured Observation
  • Simple Observation and Contrived Observation
• Structured Observation

  • systematic observation
  • a technique in which the researcher employs explicitly formulated rules for the observation and recording of behavior.
  • the rules have observation schedule used to ensure that each participant’s behavior is systematically recorded so that it is possible to group the behavior of all samples in respect to each type of behavior being recorded.
• Participant Observation

  • best-known methods of research in social science
  • prolonged immersion of the observer in the social setting where he/she seeks to observe the behavior of members in the setting (group, organization, community, etc)
• Nonparticipant Observation

  • used to describe a situation in which the observer observes but does not participate in what is going on in the social setting
  • Structured observers are usually nonparticipants in that they are in the social setting being observed but rarely participate in what is happening.
• Unstructured Observation

  • does not entail the use of an observation schedule for recording of behavior
  • it aims to record in as much detail as possible the behavior of participants with the aim of developing a narrative account of that behavior.
• Simple Observation

  • observer is unobtrusive and is not observed by those being observed
  • the observer has no influence over the situation being observed
  • this is a form of nonparticipant observation and can entail either structured or unstructured observation
• Structured Interview

  • Structured approach to maximize the reliability and validity of measurement of key concepts
  • The interview reflects the researcher’s concerns
  • Rambling’ is usually regarded as a nuisance and discouraged
• Structured Interview

  • Standardization of the interview process is strictly followed.
  • Inflexible due to standardization
  • Generates answers that can be coded and processed quickly
  • Unless the research is longitudinal in character, the person will be interviewed on one occasion only