Theory

• Positivists


  Believe that sociology is a science.

  Comte - applying natural science methodology to the study of society based on evidence and objectivity to produce a 'positive science of society', behaviour in the social world is governed by laws of cause and effect which is the same as objects in the natural world.
• Durkheim's Suicide study


  Followed a hypothetico-deductive model: involved observation, a hypothesis, a deduction, and the application of the scientific method to data
• Marx

  Theories of class struggle, revolution etc were based on cause-and-effect theories from the application of the scientific method to data.

  E.g. statistics on inequality, poverty and unemployment.
• Realists


  • Argue that the similarity between the natural and social science is their attempt to explain the causes of events in terms of underlying structures and processes, although often unobservable
  • Cite examples like Michael Fish and meteorology, black holes - unobservable structures
• Open Systems


  Researchers can't control and measure relevant variables, can't make precise predictions
• Methodological pluralism or triangulation


  Preferable as they gain both reliability and validity
• Popper argued that good science is about falsification (proving hypotheses wrong), scientists can only be conclusively wrong so no such thing as 'truth' or 'absolute knowledge'.

  Evaluation - shows science as rational, different types follow own rules.
• Much of sociology can't be falsified as its theories can't be proven wrong
• Conjecture and refutation model


  A hypothesis based on an observation, then looks at evidence to falsify it
• Closed societies claim to have an absolute truth which conflicts with the provisional, falsifiable nature of scientific knowledge
• Marxism -offered counter-evidence for argument about revolution, can't be proven wrong
• Kuhn argued that sociology can't fit into one unified paradigm due to many conflicting theories
• Verstehen - Weber


  Understanding meanings and interpretations
• Interpretivists - studying society is different to studying natural world.


  • People interpret and give meaning to a situation before responding to it, so it's impossible to predict human behaviour or to establish cause-and-effect relationships
  • Focus on qualitative data, Becker - used unstructured interviews and observations to gain in-depth information and detail
• Ethnography


  Research involving living with participants to understand their true feelings and reasons for behaving
• Ethnomethodology


  Interested in the methods and rules used to produce meanings
• Postmodernism: Lyotard - argues that science is a meta-narrative and has no more claim to validity than other narratives, and that it has become the dominant meta-narrative due to its relationship with capitalism.

  Dangerous as it claims a monopoly of truth and can be used as a form of domination.
• Poststructural feminists sees the process of a single scientific feminist theory as a form of domination as it covertly excludes many groups of women, and quantitative methods as oppressive and unable to capture the reality of women's experiences
• Positivism sees sociology as a science that could and should be value-free, possible to study society objectively in the same way scientists study the natural world
• Marx argued his theory was a scientific study of the effect of the capitalist economy on behaviour patterns. Theories of class struggle revolution etc were based on cause-and-effect theories established by the application of the scientific methods.

  Communist Manufesto - aiming to teach people of the problem of capitalism
• Functionalism


  Durkheim - using similar methods to natural sciences would enable an objective, value-free sociology, where social facts can be separated from the values of the researcher.

  Sociology should provide state with objective, scientific information to make effective policies. State serves interests of society as a whole - education policies promote equality of opportunity and social integration.
• Committed sociology - sociologists spells out the importance of values to their research.

  Gouldner - argues that it is not possible or desirable to be value-free, as the whole point of sociology is to criticise society, take a stand and try to change society.
• Committed sociologists argue that pretending to be value-free supports the interests of the powerful, and that sociology should be focused on value commitment - commitment to improving the lives of the exploited and oppressed.

  Marxists - clear value-commitment to exposing structures of class inequality and conflict in capitalist society, power of MC.

  Feminists - research driven by desire to challenge patriarchy and to improve the position and lives of women.
• Becker argued that all sociology is inevitably influenced by values, and that sociologists should adopt a compassionate stance and take the side of the 'underdog', can reveal a previously hidden side of society, less known about such groups so story needs to be told to redress power balance.
• Can't be value-free - Lyotard - relativism - the process of sociological and scientific thinking is based on a set of values about the nature of society, all that a sociologist does is derived form a set of values that are no 'truer' than any others, any perspectives claiming to have truth e.g. Marxism is just a meta-narrative.

  All knowledge is based on values and assumptions.
• Reflexivity argues that people are forced to constantly monitor, reflect on and modify their actions in light of risks and opportunities in late modernity.

  E.g. Beck's risk society, Gidden's individualisation thesis.
• Foucault argued that knowledge reflects the ability of the powerful to impose ideas, and that dominant discourse controls knowledge
• Should influence social policy:

  Social Democracy supports the redistribution of wealth and income from the rich to the poor.

  Townsend - sociologists should be involved in researching social problems and making policy recommendations to eradicate them, researched poverty and made recommendations for policies such as higher benefit levels and more public spending on health, education and welfare.

  Support - Perry Pre-school project. However, benefits not seen immediately so less likely to get political votes.
• Sociology shouldn't influence policy:

  Governments may not be able to afford to implement sociological suggestions, or may ignore them or use them selectively to justify their own political ideologies.

  McNeill - much sociological work ignored by governments as concerns itself with politically sensitive issues like inequalities and related social problems. Sociologists have not been slow in questioning effects of government policies.

  Reclassification of Cannabis was not based on research, but about giving a message to young people and voters.
• The New Right - Murray - argues that the state should have minimal involvement in society, and that welfare state policies are supported by sociological research that creates perverse incentives and rewards irresponsible and anti-social behaviour. Critical of policy for undermining nuclear family.
• Keat and Urry - science isn't as scientific as it claims so sociology can be included

  Reject the idea that science is only concerned with observable phenomena.

  Sociologists can't directly see a thing called 'social class' but can observe its effects on people's life chances etc.
• Foucault


  Marxism used by the Soviet Union, claiming to have discovered the ideal society but really used to coerce and oppress.
• Beck


  Risk society - science has created dangers such as nuclear weapons and global warming - if science produces such negative consequences it would be inappropriate for sociology to adopt it as a model.
• Sociology can/ should be value free

  Positivism - sees sociology as a science.

  Comte - could and should be value free, possible to study society objectively in the same way scientists do the natural world.
• Sociology of the Enlightenment (modernity)


  Role of sociology is to be the science of society, job was to discover the truth about how society works and the laws that govern its proper functioning.
• Piecemeal social engineering


  Cautious approach, tackles one specific issue at a time, maintains organic analogy.
• Support to functionalist view

  Research by Oakley, Lees and Sharpe (liberal feminists) has impacted tackling gender inequality:

  Equal Pay Act 1970

  Sex Discrimination Act 1975

  GIST, WISE
• Support for Becker - sociology shouldn't be value-free


  Interactionists favour methods which emphasise identifying and empathising with the powerless, favour qualitative methods as reveals meaning (Verstehen).

  Research should be driven by a desire to change and improve world for disadvantaged (marxist and feminist points).
• Sociology can't be value free


  Sociologists' academic training, paradigm/ perspective they have learnt for interpreting and evaluating evidence, assumptions, beliefs etc are all sources of values. Sociological investigation is based on researcher's subjective assumptions.

  Weber - essential role for values in research: a guide to research (value relevance), data collection and hypothesis testing (objectivity), interpretation of data (theoretical framework), sociologist as a citizen.
• Sociology should influence social policy

  Gouldner - sociologists became 'spiritless technicians' and 'problem takers', hired selves out to organisations e.g. businesses, the military, to solve problems for them. Own values didn't matter, didn't criticise paymasters.

  Evaluation - Weber - sociologists must take moral responsibility for the effects of their work.