equipment and tactics classics

• Tunic


  Sat next to the soldier's skin, protecting him from chaffing against his cuirass
• Cuirass (breastplate)


  • Either solid bronze or several layers of linen glued together, with bronze scales on the top for added defence
  • Single piece, not very flexible, which didn't matter in the phalanx, but could make free movement harder outside of the phalanx
  • Solid bronze cuirass would be heavy, potentially exhausting a hoplite
• Material


  • Cloth
  • Bronze
  • Leather
• Greaves (shin armour)


  • Protected the shins from enemy projectiles
  • The thighs were left undefended
• Boots or sandals


  • Protected the soles of the feet from being cut, and provide some grip to help the soldier not fall over
• Helmet

  • Protected the head from projectiles and blows from handheld weapons (swords, spears, clubs)
  • The most common type was the Corinthian style, but other types were common, for example the pilos
  • Horsehair plumes were a common flourish - they may have intimidated the enemy by making the warrior seem taller
• Shield (Hoplon)


  • Held to the arm with a leather thong and bronze handgrip, used primarily for defence
  • In the phalanx, soldiers on the front row would lock their shields together to make a wall, which effectively protected them from enemy projectiles
  • Sometimes had a leather curtain at the bottom to give some protection for the thighs against projectiles
  • Were sometimes decorated - monsters were popular (to intimidate the enemy) as were symbols associated with the warrior's city (to motivate them)
• Spear


  • Hoplite's primary weapon, held out in front of them in the phalanx formation to keep enemy infantry and cavalry at a distance
  • From a safe distance of around 2m, the hoplites would stab with their spear at the enemy, aiming to land a fatal blow
  • The butt on the end of the spear gave the spear some balance and made it less tiring to wield, could also be used offensively if the spear tip broke off, and helped the spear to be stuck in the ground, angled upward in case of a cavalry attack
• Sword


  • Hoplite's secondary weapon, could be used if their spear broke, or if he was fighting out of a phalanx for some reason (e.g. if the phalanx had been broken, or if the enemy were fleeing and he was chasing them down)
• The tunic ended at the waist leaving the groin and thighs exposed - this was a common place for a hoplite soldier to be wounded
• There are major blood vessels in the thighs. If a hoplite was wounded here, he would likely bleed to death very quickly
• Fields are uneven and covered in sharp stones! Battlefields are even worse - they're also covered with dropped or broken weapons, blood and bodies of fallen warriors
• Phalanx formation


  A form of heavy infantry, where hoplite soldiers fought shoulder to shoulder with heavy weapons and armour
• Phalanx


  • A tight fighting formation
  • Warriors fought shoulder to shoulder
  • Shield protected both the soldier and the right flank of the soldier next to them
  • Soldiers marched in unison to maintain strict organization
• Maintaining phalanx formation

  1. Soldiers march in unison

  2. Flautist played music to dictate rhythm of march
• Spear


  • Metal butt could be stuck in ground against cavalry attack
  • Kept the spear properly balanced
  • Could be used as a bludgeoning weapon if broken
• Phalanx


  • Wall of spears at the front prevented other infantry from attacking
  • Heavy armour including helmet and cuirass provided effective protection against projectiles
• Phalanx

  • Soldiers at the back would step forward when comrades fell to maintain unbroken shield formation
  • Soldiers at the back would push colleagues in front to strengthen the formation
• Phalanx weakness

  • Lacked manoeuvrability and mobility due to tight formation
  • Sides and back not well defended as spears and shields were aimed at the front
• Weakness of phalanx

  Flanks typically defended by cavalry or light and medium troops
• Phalanx vs phalanx


  • Battle decided by experience and number of hoplites
  • Discipline of soldiers - if some wavered and fled, the tight formation would be broken and leave the whole group vulnerable
• As long as soldiers maintained discipline and the tight formation, the phalanx's defenses would be formidable
• what would the wall of spears at the front of the phalanx achieve

  prevented any other infantry division from attacking the front of the phlanax
• why were soldiers towards the back of the phalanx important

  would step forward when a comrade fell ensuring that the shield formation remained unbroken. they would also push their colleagues in front strengthening the formation
• what was the weakness of the phalanx

  lacked manoeuvrability and mobility

  sides and back of the phalanx were not well protected
• how would soldiers keep the strict formation of the phalanx

  a flautist helped by playing music to dictate the rhythm of the march
• Spartan boys

  • Raised to show absolute discipline and obedience to authority
  • Those who disobeyed in the agoge would fail and not become citizens
• Exiled Spartan king (in Herodotus' Histories): '"Fighting singly, they are as good as any, but fighting together they are the best soldiers in the world. They are free - yes - but not entirely free; for they have a master, and that master is the Law, which they fear."'
• Fighting in the Spartan phalanx

  • It was an honour to fight on the front line
  • Only the best fighters were allowed
• Spartan society

  • Promoted close bonds between comrades
  • Members of a syssition would fight directly alongside one another
• Spartan military tactics

  • They did not fight the same enemy too often
  • They did not pursue fleeing enemies so that rumours of their skill would spread
• Spartan men


  • Not allowed to have any profession
  • Given a kleros and helots to provide food for them
• In Sparta, death was glorious if it served a greater purpose (i.e. if it was for the good of the city)
• In other Greek states, all bodies were buried outside the city
• In Sparta the bodies of those who died in war were buried within the city, close to the temples, in honour of their sacrifice
• Traditional farewell from Spartan mothers to their warrior sons: '"return either with your shield or on it"'
• Tunic


  Cloth armour
• Lorica segmentata


  • Horizontal metal bands covering the torso
  • Vertical metal bands protecting the shoulders
  • Sat next to the soldier's skin, protecting him from chaffing against his plate armour
  • Could be manufactured much more quickly than chainmail armour
  • Very flexible, allowing the soldier to twist his body
  • Fittings that held the bands together were easily damaged, so constant need of repair
  • Provided excellent protection against projectiles, which would be turned away, and some protection from slashing sword blows
• Plate armour

  Iron armour
• Gladius

  • Principle weapon of the legionary soldier, used for fighting in close quarters
  • Mostly used for stabbing, not slashing, as stab wounds were more likely to hit a vital organ or sever a major artery and be fatal
  • Also a defensive piece of equipment, used to parry incoming blows