beliefs in society

• Popper- science


  theories can be tested through observation + experiment, theyre superior to everyday knowledge/beliefs. Any theory that can be falsified (proven wrong) is a scientific theory. Science isnt defined by the discovery of the final truth but by the elimination of untruths. He states that researchers should aim not to prove their hypothesis true but to falsify them.
• Popper = hypothetico-deductive method


  hypothesis formation= informed guesses about the causes of phenomena.

  falsification=testing hpothesis against evidence trying to prove it wrong.

  prediciton=establishing evidence based cause+effect relationship which would happen again is same circumstances arose.

  theory formation= if hypothesis is tested+ cant be proven false then its likely to be true so it can be part of scientific theory.

  scrutiny= scientific theory iss scrutinised by other scientists/stands true until new evidence emerges which proves it to be false.
• kuhn - science

  challenges traditional view of science-saw it as socially constructed-rejects view that science is based solely on rationality/objectivity. Believes scientists work within a paradigm=set of values about what theyre investigating which isnt questioned until evidence against its overwhelming. Most scientists in their experimental work try to fit observations into the paradigm rather than actually attempting to falsify their hypothesis. Power of paradigm means scientists focus on what theyre looking for so may overlook evidence which doesnt fit into existing paradigm.
• mertons view on science CUDOS

  Communism=al scientific knowledge should be shared/become common knowledge.

  Universalism=all knowledge is judged by the same criteria/held to common standards -peer review.

  Disinterestedness=all scientists should be unbiased/remain objective.

  Open Scepticism=all finding can be subject to questioning/therefore change.
• horton - open/closed belief systems


  highlighted differences between them. Science=open system as its knowledge claims are based on evidence. Religion=closed as its not open to criticism/alternative views.

  religion + magic are similar to science as each tries to make sense/understand the world. criticised as religion/magic is fundamentally different as science can be tested and religion cannot.
• wilson

  shift away from religious thinking towards rational thinking-encouraged greater knowledge of physical/social world.
• Popper- open belief


  science=open belief system-scientists put forward statements/test them systematically by observation/experiment - open to criticism/scrutiny/testing by peers. He challenged traditional view that scientific knowledge is based on proof. Science based on falsification rather than verification/ it progresses by gradually building on the achievements of other scientists.
• kuhn-closed belief

  science=closed system of ideas/argued progress in science is neither linear or gradual. Science is committed to a particular scientific paradigm/set of beliefs shared by group of scientists. Didnt accept that scientists are completely objective.
• kaplan - logics

  reconstructed logics=methods/procedures that scientists claim that they use when presenting work in books/papers.

  logics in use= what scientists actually do during their research/methods/procedures they use.
• traditional views about science have been challenged - Lynch


  conducted research in psycho-biological lab and his findings suggested that scientists may be less objective than they claim.
• Stephen Jay Gould: 'Scientist arguing strongly for evolutionary theories of biology. Evolutionary theories support the idea of natural selection. Dismissed biblical claims that the world was created by God in 6 days. No conflict between science and religion because they're concerned with different aspects of human life and human needs'
• Gould= Type of human need

  Need to understand the facts about how nature works. Meaning and morality
• Gould= Religion can fulfil the purpose of providing meaning and morality without being in direct conflict with Science
• Gould=Calvinist Protestantism encouraged the development of rational thought and the development of science
• Gould=Religions like Scientology claim to be based upon scientific knowledge, believe their founder uncovered science of Dianetics - peoples minds backed by engrams
• Steve Bruce argues Science and religion can exist together quite easily. Science is unlikely to disprove religious faith that is backed up and supported by strong religious community
• Dawkins believes belief in all supernatural gods is simply a delusion completely at odds with all scientific beliefs
• Dawkins accepts science may not have all answers, but dismisses a wide range of arguments for the existence of God using combination of rational argument and evolutionary biology - argues against intelligent design and states development of ever more complex life forms was result of Evolutionary Process of natural selection
• Dawkins believes religion is based on faith, which he believes is inadequate and solely harmful basis for believing in something