1) Theories of Religion (Beliefs)

• Religion - definition


  a belief in/ worship of the supernatural
• Examples of Religion

  • Catholics - God
  • Judaism
  • Islam - Allah
  • Judaism
• Three main definitions sociologists use to describe religion:

  1. Substantive definition
  2. Functional definition
  3. Social Constructionists
• Substantive Definition


  focus on the content or substance of religious belief. Belief in God or higher power. Excludes belief systems such as Buddhism which don't worship a God.

  • specific beliefs and practices that are associated with a particular religious tradition.
• Functional Definition


  what the religion actually does (for a individual or society) and the idea of community eg. maintaining social order.

  Inclusive - a wide range of beliefs and practices are included.
• Social Constructionists Definition


  how individual members of society define religion (interpretivist).

  inclusive - but also make it impossible to come up with a general definition.
• Belief System definition 


  any integrated set of ideas, influence the way people see the world. Take several forms most important are religious, political and scientific.
• Religious Belief System definition


  belief in the existence of a supernatural entity or other forces. Doesn't have to be a God.
• Can you describe a football/sport event as a religious experience?

  yes, its all about people coming together as a community and it being all inclusive as anyone can attend football events and religious services.
• Functionalist Theories of Religion 


  see religion as a conservative force (restore traditional beliefs)

  they believe religion plays an important part in society, it provides a form of secondary socialisation to society's members.
• Functionalist - Durkheim view on religion.


  key features of religion was not a belief in Gods, spirits or the supernatural, but a fundamental distinction between the sacred and profane found in all religions.
• Durkheim - sacred 


  things set apart and forbidden, inspire feelings of awe, fear and wonder and are surrounded by taboos and prohibition. Represents great power.
• Durkheim - profane 


  things that have no special significance. Ordinary, everyday, non sacred, non spiritual and non religious.
• Religion provides something 'different and special' (Haj - brings people together, it is a ritual) for believers. Religion involves definite rituals and practices in relation to the sacred, rituals are collective.

  people worship sacred symbols, Durkheim - they are worshipping society itself.
• Totenism


  the essence of all religion could be found by studying its simplest form, in the simplest type of society (clan society)
• Durkheim's Four Functions of Religion (Don't Cook Vegetables Everyday)

  1. Discipline
  2. Cohesion
  3. Vitalising
  4. Euphoric
• 1. Discipline


  religion imposes self-discipline and social order eg. religion can impose rules to live by. Catholics, lent 40 days and 40 nights.
• 2. Cohesion


  religion ceremonies allow people to reaffirm their commitment to social bonds.
• 3. Vitalising 


  religion transmits values from one generation to the next, ensuring norms and values are vital to organisation of society.
• 4. Euphoric 


  alleviates frustrations by allowing people to become part of something bigger than themselves.
• Collective Conscience 


  the sacred symbols represent society's collective conscience.

  • is the shared norms, values, beliefs and knowledge that make social life and co-operation between people possible.
  • without this society would crumble.
• Durkheim - shared religious rituals reinforce the collective conscience and maintain social integration.

  such rituals also remind the individual of the power of society.
• Cognitive Functions of Religion


  Durkheim - religion is the origin of the concepts and categories we need for reasoning, understanding the world and communicating.

  Religion is the origin of human thought, reason and science.
• Evaluation of Durkheim - Warsley


  Warsley - there is no sharp division between the sacred and profane, and that the different the sacred and the profane, and that the different clans share the same totems.

  Durkheim is right about totenism, this does not prove that he has discovered the essence of all other religions.
• Evaluation of Durkheim


  theory may apply better to small-scale societies with a single religion. It is harder to apply it to large-scale societies where two or more religious communities may be in conflict.
• Evaluation of Durkheim - Postmodernists (Mestorvic)


  Mestrovic - Durkheim ideas cannot be applied to contemporary societies because increasing diversity has fragmented the collective consciousness, so there is no longer a single shared value system for religion to reinforce.
• Functionalist - Malinowski 


  agrees with Durkheim that religion promotes solidarity.
• Malinowski - Religion performs psychological functions for its individuals, helping them cope with stress. 


  Does this in 2 ways: (one way)

  1. where the outcome it important but is uncontrollable and uncertain

  • Lagoon Fishing - safe and uses predicted and successful methods of poising. No ritual.
  • Ocean Fishing - dangerous and uncertain - rituals to ensure a safe and successful expedition. Gave them a sense of control, which ease tension.
• Malinowski - Religion performs psychological functions for its individuals, helping them cope with stress.


  at time of life crisis

  • events such as birth, puberty, marriage and death marks major and disruptive changes in social groups.
  • religion helps minimise disruption
  • for example, funeral rituals reinforce a feeling of solidarity among survivors, while the notion of life after death gives comfort to the bereaved.
• Functionalists - Parsons 


  sees religion helping individuals to cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes.

  • creates and legitimates society's central values - eg. 10 commandments.
  • the primary source of meaning - eg. why do bad people succeed while the good suffer?
• Civil Religion - Neo-Functionalism (Bellah)


  Bellah - argue that what unifies America is a civil religion - a belief system that attracts sacred qualities to society itself.

  eg. Nazism is viewed as a civil religion because their belief system (nationalism) substituted belief in God.

  they provide their millions of followers with charismatic leadership, secular saints and objects, and codes of behaviour in a similar way that conventional religion does.
• Bellah (Neo-Functionalism)


  argues that the USA is dominated by a civil religion that he calls "Americanism" which unites the American people, regardless of class, race.

  Americanism can be seen in most aspects of American life eg.

  • 4th July - Independence Day
  • Thanksgiving
  • Powerful Symbols - American Flag
  • Dollar Bill (in God we trust) written in every court room as well.
• what impact does Americanism as a civil religion have?

  • integrated effect
  • brings people together from very different backgrounds and creeds and unifies them quickly into one nation under God.
• Is religion the opium of the people? (Marxism) 


  • religion is the product of protests people
  • distracts people away from there expression
  • holds back social change
  • maintained by elite powerful men
  • religion acts a conservative force
  • religion is stopping the poor from having a revolution
• Evaluation of Functionalism: (2011 Census Data + Bruce)


  Bruce - decline in religious practices in Western Societies and have argued that its difficult to see how religion can socialise the majority of society members into morality and social integration, if only a minority of people attend church, for example:

  • 2011 Census Results: most of the UK population subscribes to some sort of religious belief:
  • 25% say they follow no religion
  • 59.3% identifies as Christian
• Evaluation of Functionalism: Hamilton


  Hamilton (religion causes of lot of issues)

  Durkheim stresses that religion can inspire morality and heroism, but fails to acknowledge that it can also inspire mob mentality.

  it can create conflict and huge suffering as well as bringing people together. For example,

  • In India, over 10,000 people have been killed in Hindu-Muslim communal violence since 1950.
  • 1969 and 1999 saw conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland that causes approx 3,600 deaths.
• Marxists Theories of Religion

  feature only of class-divided society. There will be no need for religion in classless society and it will disappear.
• Marxists : Religion as ideology 


  ideology as a belief system distorts people's perception of reality in ways that serve the interest of the ruling class.

  
  

  ruling class - controls economic production also controls the production and distribution of ideas in society, through institutions such as church and the media. Bourgeoisie control the ideology.
• Marxists: Religion as ideology


  Religion operates as an ideological weapon used by the ruiling class to legitimate the suffering of the poor as something inevitable and god-given.

  
  

  aimed at convincing the poor and powerless that they will be compensated for their suffering by God in the afterlife.

  
  

  these ideas create false consciousness - a distorted view of reality that prevents the poor from acting to change their situation.

  
  

  A02 - Victorian Hymn

  "the rich man in his castle, the poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly and order their estate"

  your status in society is God given
• Marxists: Religion as ideology (examples)

  • Christian : New Testament States : "it is easier for a camel to pass through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of heaven"

  creates false consciousness as its not easy for a rich man to enter heaven therefore those who experience poverty on Earth you are rewarded in heaven.