Observation

• Research aim


  Statement of what we are interested in researching/investigating
• Research question


  A question generated relating to what is being investigated - often more accurate/specific than research aim
• Naturalistic observation


  Involves observing participants in their natural environment. It's often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables
• Naturalistic observation strengths

  • Participants are in their normal environment so are more likely to show valid behaviours, leading to high ecological validity
  • Participants are less likely to be aware they are being observed so are more likely to be genuine
  • May allow researcher to record unexpected behaviours
• Naturalistic observation weaknesses

  • Extraneous variables can rarely be controlled so reduces validity
  • Difficult to ensure the reliability of data collection, however, this can be overcome by recording behaviours via video tape
  • If observers are identified validity is compromised
  • Less control of extraneous variables
• Controlled observation


  This involves a situation being controlled by the researcher, but with no IV - usually conducted in a laboratory type setting
• Controlled observation strengths

  • Data recording is likely to be reliable because there is a specific focus that allows data to be collected in a consistent manner
  • Extraneous variables can be controlled therefore increasing the validity
  • Compared to experiments, a much greater range of behaviours can be explored giving useful insight into human behaviour.
• Controlled observation weaknesses

  • Participants are in an unfamiliar environment so may not react naturally
  • Participants will be aware that they are in an artificial situation so they may not react naturally
  • Difficulty to completely represent the reality of a complex social setting so lacks ecological validity
• Participant observation


  The researcher is involved with the people they are observing
• Participant observation strengths

  • Allows you to see behaviours which are difficult to spot
  • Provides a greater depth as you can record reasons for your observations
  • Only way to observe some behaviours e.g. cults/gangs
• Participant observation weaknesses

  • Harder to remain objective as the researcher may get lost in the moment and begin to interpret behaviour at a personal level (building a relationship) which may be more opinionated rather than focused on what is actually happening
  • The presence of the researcher can influence behaviour, reducing validity
• Non-participant observation 


  The researcher remains separate from the people they are observing
• Non-participant observation strengths

  • Easier to remain objective as the researcher is away from distractions and can remain focused - increasing the validity
  • More ethical as the researcher is not impacting behaviour
  • Easier to record behaviour accurately
• Non-participant observation weaknesses

  • If participants are not aware they are being observed as part of a non-participation observation, it can raise ethical issues such as consent and the right to withdraw
  • Less detail and accuracy as the researcher is at a distance from the participants meaning some behaviours can be recorded inaccurately - reducing validity
• Covert observation


  Participants do not know they are being observed
• Covert observation strengths

  • Increases validity as participants aren't aware they are being observed and are therefore more likely to act naturally
  • No demand characteristics as participant isn't aware of the researcher
• Covert observations weaknesses

  • Creates ethical issues as participants doesn't know they are being observed
  • If a participant becomes aware of the researcher's presence, they may change their behaviour, thus decreasing the validity
  • It is difficult to record behaviour without raising suspicion
• Overt observation


  Participants know they are being observed
• Overt observation strengths

  • Reduces ethical issues as the participants are aware that they are being observed
  • If observed for long period, people tend to forget about observers and behave more naturally, particularly when being filmed
  • Researcher can be more open in tallying behaviour so it is easier to record data.
• Overt observation weaknesses

  • Increase of social desirability as if they are aware of being observed they may change their behaviour to appear socially desirable, which decreases validity
  • Increased chance of demand characteristics as the participant is aware of the researcher and they may change their behaviour to fit with what they think the researcher is looking for - demand characteristics
• Event sampling


  A data collection technique that uses a checklist of possible activities, which are tallied as they occur
• Event sampling strengths

  • Recordings are easy to obtain and analyse as researchers can clearly see the total number of behaviours for each event which can make analysis extremely quick and easy, especially when looking for the most or least common behaviours
  • More reliable observations as the events are already planned, therefore it could easily be replicated to measure the consistency of observational behaviours
  • Better for recording behaviours which are not frequent
• Event sampling weaknesses

  • Can miss important behaviours due to having set events to record already planned reducing validity
  • If many events occur at once is may lead to behaviours not being recorded - reducing the validity
  • It does not indicate the amount of time spent on each behavioural category, therefore it can sometimes lead to less valid conclusions
  • Time-consuming and difficult to keep concentration
• Time sampling

  Behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. ever 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds)
• Time sampling strengths

  • Less likely to miss behaviours as the researcher usually has a short time to focus on recording behaviour, therefore is more likely to be accurate
  • It can give an indication of how much time is spent on the behaviour
  • does not require the observer to focus the whole time
  • Can see where behaviour changes over time
• Time sampling weaknesses

  • Behaviours that occur outside the time intervals are not accounted for therefore may reduce validity as important behaviours may be missed
  • Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
  • Can miss events not coded for - reduces validity
  • Can miss interesting data between time points
• Coding frame


  Allows for more specific behaviours to be observed within a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or different sub-type within a category
• Unstructured observation

  Recording everything observed during the observation
• Unstructured observation strengths

  • Increases validity as the researcher is taking into account all behaviours that are going on. This ensures that more valid conclusions are made of behaviour as a wide perspective is gathered, not a small focused one
  • Applicable to a wide range of contexts - this is a key strength as this method is extremely easy to use when collecting data on many different situations of behaviour
  • More in depth results
• Unstructured observation weaknesses

  • Harder to record as the researcher has to pay attention to everything around them, this may cause behaviours to be missed and reduce validity
  • Harder to establish reliability because there is limited focus, therefore if it were to be replicated, the focus is likely to be different in relation to the individual carrying out the observation
  • Open to observer bias as the researcher may only note down behaviours that support their own theories, or behaviours that reflect what they hoped to find
  • Produces qualitative data which may be hard to analyse
• Structured observation


  Using predefined coding categories for behaviours
• Structured observation strengths

  • Easier to record as there is a specific focus on certain behaviours, increasing validity as the researcher is not distracted by irrelevant behaviours or behaviours that don't relate to the research aim
  • Easier to establish inter-rater reliability. Due to clear, planned focus on behaviour research can be understood in a clear way, making it standardisable
  • Focuses the observation and increases usefulness and objectivity of study
  • Makes recording data more easy and systematic
• Structured observation weaknesses

  • Can reduce validity as there is a clear focus and other important behaviours may be missed
  • Results aren't as in-depth and in detail
• The secret life of five-year-olds

  • Event sampling - behaviour was recorded every time a child played with a toy, dressed up ect.
  • Time sampling - every minute, behaviours from coding frames would be recorded
• Hallway phone observation

  • Put up posters so people could avoid hallway
  • Coding frame: people texting, talking on the phone, had the phone in their hand, listening to music
  • Event sampling