history final

• Mansa Musa

  ruler of the Mali Empire in West Africa. He is known for his wealth and his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324–1325, which not only showcased the wealth of Mali but also established diplomatic and trade relations with Islamic states. Mansa Musa's pilgrimage is significant because it contributed to the spread of Islam in West Africa and increased awareness of the region's immense wealth. His reign also saw the flourishing of trade, scholarship, and the arts in Mali, making him a central figure in African history and a symbol of the wealth and power of medieval West Africa.
• liberalism

  Originating in the Enlightenment era, it’s a political and philosophical ideology rooted in principles of individual liberty, equality, and the rule of law. the importance of protecting individual rights, such as freedom of speech, religion, and assembly, while advocating for limited government intervention to maximize personal freedom and autonomy. It has played a significant role in shaping modern democracies, promoting civil rights movements, and influencing policies on issues such as social justice, economic regulation, and international relations.
• ad fontes

  It refers to the principle of returning to the original sources or foundational texts when analyzing or studying a subject. In academic contexts, ad fontes emphasizes the importance of consulting primary sources rather than relying solely on secondary interpretations or commentaries. This approach aims to gain a deeper understanding of a topic by directly engaging with the original texts, documents, or artifacts, thereby enabling scholars to form more accurate interpretations and conclusions.
• social contract

  concept in political philosophy that explores the theoretical agreement between individuals and their governing authority. people voluntarily surrender certain freedoms and submit to the authority of a government in exchange for security, stability, and protection of their rights. serves as a theoretical framework for understanding the legitimacy of political authority, the nature of citizenship, and the balance between individual liberties and collective responsibilities within a society. It remains a fundamental concept in political thought.
• munich agreement

  diplomatic agreement between Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy, aimed at resolving the crisis over a region of Czechoslovakia inhabited by ethnic Germans. allowed Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland without intervention, in exchange for Hitler's promise not to make any further territorial demands in Europe. Munich Agreement is criticized for its policy of appeasement, as it sacrificed Czechoslovakia's sovereignty and failed to prevent further aggression by Nazi Germany. The Munich Agreement paved the way for the outbreak of World War II less than a year later.
• NATO

  North Atlantic Treaty Organization, military alliance, promote collective defense and security among its members. founding members included the USA, Canada, and several European nations. core principle of NATO is enshrined in Article 5 of its treaty, states that an attack on one member is an attack on all members, obligating them to come to each other's defense. formed as a response to the threat by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. since evolved to address new challenges, including terrorism, cyber threats, and instability. It has expanded its membership to include 30 countries.
• mercantilism

  economic theory and practice dominant in Europe from the 16th to the 18th centuries. advocated for government intervention in the economy to increase national wealth and power. Key tenets included the accumulation of precious metals, through trade, the establishment of colonies to secure raw materials and markets, and the use of protectionist measures like tariffs and subsidies to promote domestic industry. Mercantilist policies aimed to strengthen the state by boosting exports and limiting imports, often at the expense of other nations.
• mamluks

  The Mamluks were a caste of slave soldiers who rose to power in various Islamic societies, notably in Egypt and the Levant, during the Middle Ages. They formed the ruling class and military elite, often exerting considerable influence over political affairs.
• adam smith

  Adam Smith, a Scottish economist and philosopher, is widely regarded as the father of modern economics. His seminal work, "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), laid the foundation for classical economics and advocated for free markets, limited government intervention, and the division of labor as drivers of economic prosperity.
• queen min

  Queen Min, also known as Empress Myeongseong, was a prominent figure in late 19th-century Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. She played a crucial role in resisting Japanese influence and modernizing Korea, but her efforts ultimately led to her assassination in 1895 as part of Japan's efforts to expand its influence in the region.
• french revolution

  The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It led to the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and the Reign of Terror, during which thousands were executed. The revolution profoundly transformed French society and inspired revolutionary movements worldwide.
• total war

  Total War is a military strategy that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, characterized by the mobilization of entire societies and economies to support warfare. It involves the use of all available resources, including civilian populations and infrastructure, to achieve victory. Total war was notably seen in World War I and World War II.
• cuban missed crisis

  The Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in October 1962 when the United States discovered Soviet nuclear missiles stationed in Cuba, leading to a tense standoff between the two superpowers. It marked the closest point the world came to nuclear war during the Cold War, with both sides eventually agreeing to a resolution that involved the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba and a pledge by the U.S. not to invade the island.
• doctrine lapse

  The Doctrine of Lapse was a policy implemented by Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, which allowed the British East India Company to annex Indian states whose rulers died without a natural heir. It was a controversial policy that led to the annexation of several princely states, contributing to discontent and resistance against British rule in India.
• scramble for africa

  The Scramble for Africa refers to the late 19th-century period when European powers rapidly colonized and divided up the African continent. Motivated by economic interests such as access to resources, markets, and strategic territories, European nations employed military force and diplomatic negotiations to establish colonial dominance in Africa, resulting in significant social, economic, and political upheaval for African societies.
• capitalism

  Capitalism is an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, free markets, and profit motive. It emphasizes competition, innovation, and individual initiative, with prices determined by supply and demand. Capitalism has been a dominant economic system in many parts of the world since the Industrial Revolution, shaping global trade, investment, and economic growth.
• martin luther

  Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian who played a central role in the Protestant Reformation during the 16th century. He criticized the practices of the Catholic Church, particularly its sale of indulgences, and called for reform based on his interpretation of scripture. Luther's actions led to the split within Western Christianity and the emergence of Protestantism, profoundly impacting religious, social, and political developments in Europe.
• karl marx

  Karl Marx was a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary socialist whose ideas laid the groundwork for modern communism. He critiqued capitalism for its inherent contradictions and exploitation of the working class, advocating for a classless society where the means of production are collectively owned. Marx's writings, including "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das Kapital," have had a profound influence on political thought and movements worldwide.
• treaty of versailles

  The Treaty of Versailles was the peace settlement that ended World War I, signed in 1919 between the Allied powers and Germany. It imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, military restrictions, and massive reparations payments. The treaty's punitive nature contributed to economic instability and resentment in Germany, fueling the rise of Adolf Hitler and the outbreak of World War II. The Treaty of Versailles is often cited as a catalyst for future conflicts and a cautionary example of the consequences of punitive peace settlements.
• proxy wars

  Proxy wars are conflicts in which opposing powers support and often manipulate surrogate forces to achieve their strategic objectives without directly engaging in open warfare themselves. The Cold War era saw numerous proxy wars between the United States and the Soviet Union, such as the Korean War and the Vietnam War, where local actors fought on behalf of their respective superpower backers. Proxy wars allowed major powers to compete for influence and control while minimizing the risk of direct confrontation and escalation.
• globalization

  Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of economies, cultures, and societies on a global scale. It is driven by advances in technology, communication, and transportation, facilitating the flow of goods, services, information, and people across borders. Globalization has led to increased trade, investment, and cultural exchange, but it has also raised concerns about inequality, cultural homogenization, and environmental degradation. It is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon with both positive and negative impacts on societies worldwide.