KNES 213 final

• Appeal to authority


  a logical misconception where a claim is accepted based on the authority of the person making the claim, rather than the strength of the evidence of logical reasoning supporting it.
• factors to consider when evaluating an appeal to authority argument

  - verify the expertise

  - asses the relevance

  - evaluate the consensus

  - consider potential biases

  - analyze the argument

  - recognize fallibility

  - seek out diverse perspectives
• deductive reasoning


  - drawing specific conclusion based on general principles or premises

  - example: making a hypothesis based off research online
• key features of deductive reasoning

  - starts with general principles or premises

  - conclusions are logically derived from the premises

  - guarantees a true conclusion if the premises are true
• inductive reasoning


  - drawing general conclusion based on specific observation or experience

  - example: making a hypothesis based of results in a lab
• key features of inductive reasoning

  - starts with specific observations or experiences

  - generalizes or predictions based on limited information

  - provides strong evidence for a conclusion but does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion, even if the premises are true
• abductive reasoning


  - forming a hypothesis or explanation based on limited or incomplete evidence, deemed the most likely or plausible explanation given the available information

  - example: jumping to conclusion
• key features of abductive reasoning

  - also known as inference to the best explanation

  - involves generations hypotheses based on available evidence

  - does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion or explanation
• different types of worldviews

  - epistemology

  - ontology

  - positivism

  - interpretivism

  - constructivism

  - pragmatism

  - two-eyes seeing in research

  - realism

  - idealism

  - relativism

  - existentialism
• axiom


  - self-evident truth or a statement that is accepted as true without requiring proof or demonstration

  - considered the starting point or basic building blocks of a logical system, theory or discipline

  - universally accepted within a specific field of study or system
• assumption


  - statement or belief that is accepted as true without concrete evidence, often for the sake of argument or to simplify complex problems

  - made to provide a starting point for further analysis, discussion or investigation

  - may be questioned or challenged
• epistemology


  - study of knowledge and belief

  - concerned with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge

  - explores how knowledge is acquired and justified

  - investigates the distinction between knowledge and belief, as well as between true and false beliefs
• ontology


  - study of existence and the nature of reality

  - concerned with the nature of being and what exists in the world

  - explores the classification and organization of entities such as objects, events or processes

  - investigates the relationship between different entities and their properties
• positivism


  - emphasis on empirical evidence and scientific methods - pursuit of objective truths through systematic observation, measurements, and experimentation
• constructivism


  - knowledge actively constructed by individuals

  - role of personal interpretations, cognitives processes, and social interactions in shaping understanding of reality
• pragmatism


  - prioritizes practical implications, usefulness, and effectiveness of ideas and theories

  - focus on addressing specific problems or challenges rather than abstracts principles or metaphysical truths
• two-eyed seeing in research

  - integrating Indigenous and Western knowledge systems

  - promoting respects , balance, and understanding between different perspective
• falsifiable


  - the ability/capacity to definitively prove something wrong

  - has the capacity to be altered or false
• realism


  - assumes the existence of an objective reality is independent of human perception and understanding

  - believe that through systematic observation and research we can gain accurate knowledge about the world as it truly is
• idealism


  - posits that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial in nature

  - argue that our understanding of the world is shaped by our consciousness perceptions and ideas rather than objective external reality.
• existentialism


  - emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and personal responsibility in shaping one's own existence

  - believes that life has no inherent meaning or purpose and it is up to each individual to create meaning through their actions and decisions
• relativism


  the doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute.
• qualitative research


  - use of theory

  - emphasis on understanding and interpretation

  - focuses on understanding experiences and perspectives

  - uses narratives data and thematic analysis

  - research approaches: case study, ethnography, grounded theory and phenomenology

  - common data collective methods: in-depth interviews, focus groups, observations, documents analysis
• quantitative research


  - use of theory

  - hypothesis must falsifiable

  - emphasis on measurement and analysis

  - focuses on investigation relationship between variables

  - uses numerical date and statistical analysis

  - independent and dependent variable

  - research design: causal, experimental, correlation

  - common data collection methods: surveys, measurements of variables and instruments
• mixed methods research


  - combines quantitative and qualitative research methods

  - provides a more comprehensive understanding of a research problems

  - research design: concurrent, explanatory, exploratory
• ethical consideration


  all research involving human subjects must be conducted with paramount respect, concern, and fairness to individuals who participate in the study. This includes obtaining informed consent, ensuring confidentiality, and minimizing harm to participants. This is extended to animals.
• what are the 3 R's in research

  replacement, refinement, reduction
• five characteristic of a good research paper

  - systematic (plan)

  - logical (achievable conclusion)

  - empirical (date based decision)

  - reductive (relationships from the data)

  - replicable (everything recorded properly)
• serendipity


  accidental findings
• ethics: respect for persons

  - this principle acknowledges the intrinsic value of individual and the respect and consideration that they are due

  - it involves recognizing an individual's capacity to make their own decision and respecting their choice
• ethics: concern for welfare

  - this principle is about ensuring the welfare of participants

  - it involves recognizing and considering the various ways in which research can affect a person whether that be physically, mentally, socially
• ethic: justice


  - this principle pertains to fairness and equity

  - it involves treating fairly and equitably, ensuring that benefits and burdens of research are fairly distributed
• 3 R's: reduction example


  - humane animal use

  - a strategy that will result in fewer animals being used

  - this includes: obtain sufficient data to answer the hypothesis or maximize the information obtained per animal
• 3 R's: replacement example


  - humane animal use

  - methods which avoid or replace the use of animals in an area where animals would not usually be used

  - this includes: absolute (replacing with inanimate system) or relative (replacing vertebrate with invertebrates) replacement
• 3 R's: refinement example example


  - humane animal use

  - modification of husbandry or experimental procedure ti minimize pain and distress

  - this includes: animal care or training of personnel
• study design


  involves all aspects of the study: sampling control, measurement, analysis, and reporting

  - TWO MAIN BRANCHES: experimental or observational
• observational studies


  - involves researchers collecting data by observing subjects and measuring variables of interest without assigning treatments or intervention
• experimental studies


  - involves researchers actively manipulating variable and observing the effects on the subject
• descriptive studies


  aim to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied
• analytical study


  identify the relationship between different phenomena