Psychopathology AO1

• Behavioural Characteristics

  • can be seen
  • how sufferers act or behave
• Behavioural characteristics of phobias

  1. avoidance behaviour
  2. difficulty breathing
  3. panic attacks
  4. shaking
• Behavioural characteristics of OCD

  1. repetitive behaviours
  2. counting or tapping
  3. hoarding
  4. excessive double checking
• Behavioural characteristics of Depression

  1. isolating themselves
  2. lack of energy
  3. sleeping excessively
  4. weight loss or gain
• Emotional characteristics


  feelings that sufferers have
• Emotional characteristics of phobias

  1. fear of anxiety or panic
  2. fear of losing control
• Emotional characteristics of OCD

  1. distress
  2. fear of contamination
• Emotional characteristics of depression

  1. sadness
  2. low self-esteem
• Cognitive characteristics


  thoughts that sufferers have
• Cognitive characteristics of phobias

  1. difficulty concentrating
  2. distorted thinking
• Cognitive characteristics of OCD

  1. intrusive thoughts
  2. irrational thinking
• Cognitive characteristics of depression

  1. distorted thinking
  2. difficulty concentrating
• Definitions of abnormality

  1. Deviation from social norms
  2. Failure to function adequately
  3. Deviation from ideal mental health
  4. Statistical infrequency
• Deviation from social norms

  social norm = unwritten rule of how we should behave in society

  • OCD may deviate from social norms by excessively checking and counting items
• Failure to Function Adequately

  Rosenhan and Seligman identified a set of abnormal characteristics that show a person is failing to function adequately. Behaviour = unpredictable or maladaptive.

  • Depression - abnormal because unable to cope with daily demands of life
• Deviation from ideal mental health

  Jahoda created a list of six characteristics shown by normal people. personal growth, resistance to stress, accurate perception of reality etc.

  • Phobias - their behaviour prevents them from mastering the environment
• Statistical Infrequency

  fall more or less than two standard deviations away from the mean population considered statistically rare and abnormal

  • depression - not leaving the house is rare as most of the population would regularly go out
• Behavioural explanation for development of phobias

  Two-process model
• Two-process model

  Mowrer argues

  1. phobias initiate because of classical conditioning
  2. phobias are maintained because of operant conditioning
• Initiation (two process)

  a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned response through repeated presentations

  • Little Albert experiment
• Maintenence (two process)

  if we carry out a behaviour that is negatively reinforced (escaping something unpleasant) it is more likely to be repeated.

  • interaction with the phobic stimulus is punishing because of the anxiety it produces
• Behavioural treatment for phobias

  1. Systematic Desensitisation
  2. Flooding
• Systematic Desensitisation

  based on counterconditioning - patient is taught a new association that runs counter to the original association

  1. Relaxation training - taught breathing exercises
  2. Gradual Exposure - develop a fear hierarchy. agree on stages of exposure. learns to associate object with relaxation rather than fear
• Flooding


  involves putting the individual in a situation where they are forced to face their phobia immediately whilst practising relaxation techniques until the patient is fully relaxed

  1. Vivo exposure - presenting the feared object in person
  2. Vitro exposure - imaginary exposure
• Cognitive approach to explaining depression

  1. Becks negative triad
  2. Ellis' ABC model
• Becks negative triad


  involves schemas

  1. negative self-schema
  2. automatic negative thoughts (self, world and future)
  3. negative cognitive biases (minimise successes)
• Ellis' ABC model

  irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions and maladaptive behaviours

  1. Activating Event
  2. Belief (irrational)
  3. Consequences
• Cognitive treatment for depression - REBT

  a form of CBT

  • time limited sessions - 10-15 weekly, 45 minutes long
  • use ABCDEF chart
  • given homework tasks
  • therapist must show patient unconditional positive regard
• Biological approach for OCD

  1. Genetics
  2. Neural Mechanisms
• Genetics

  gene mapping indicates that a single OCD gene does not exist but OCD is polygenic (over 230 genes)

  • Evidence comes from twin studies (Gottesman) concordance rate for OCD was 87% in MZ twins and 47% in DZ twins
• Neural Explanations

  two neurotransmitters play a role in OCD

  1. Dopamine (COMT gene) - increased levels
  2. Serotonin (SERT gene) - lower levels
• Biological treatments for OCD

  1. Anti-depressants (SSRIs)
  2. Anti-anxiety drugs
• Anti-depressants (SSRI)

  Prozac increases the levels of serotonin and is taken daily
• Anti-anxiety drugs

  Valium helps to adjust neurotransmitter levels so that the person feels less anxious.

  • slow down the activity of the central nervous system by increasing levels of the neurotransmitter GABA