Representations

• Youth: Moral panics


  When Stan Cohen (1972) first coined the term, it was in relation to rival youth subcultures: the mods and the rockers, and the media reaction to clashes between the groups on bank holidays in seaside resorts.

  Cohen explained that the youths were turned into folk devils and many subsequent moral panics have focused on youth culture too, from punks, to drug-taking ravers, to "hoodies".
• How the media attacks the youth:

  
  

  The media often presents youths engaging in "bad" behaviour of various sorts (underage drinking, drug taking, petty crime, etc.)
• How the media attacks the youth:

  Wayne et al (2007) researched the content of news programmes across the main channels in one month and found that 82% of news items concentrated young people and violent crime (either as perpetrator or victim).
• Social class and Gender differences in representations of the elderly:

  
  

  Newman (2006): Upper/middle-class elderly people (particularly men) are often portrayed as being in leadership positions or elite occupations: presidents, judges and businessmen.

  The reason for this is, apparently, that the audience trust an older male voice, with grey hair lending authority
• Gender differences in representations of the elderly:

  Male news anchors are often older men.

  These older male newsreaders are often paired with a much younger female.

  Women are often moved from "front of camera" roles at quite a young age (around 40) and, similarly, actresses get much fewer roles the older they get.
• Cute- Stereotype of childhood


  Representations of childhood are generally quite positive, even if they are stereotypical.

  Babies and toddlers, in particular, are generally represented as being very cute and appealing (particularly in television advertisements)
• Consumers- Stereotype of childhood


  Chandler (2006): Talks about pester power.

  Children's television, and particularly the advertisements in between the programmes, treat children as consumers, selling them all manner of toys, holidays and consumer products.

  Companies know that children are likely to ask the parents for these products, and that parents will not want to let their children down.

  This often leads to poorer parents getting into debt to buy their children the consumer products they want.
• Little Angels- Stereotype of childhood


  Children are often represented in an idealised way, as being innocent and without malice, particularly the case in older television series and family fiction
• Little Devils- Stereotype of childhood


  Often today, the opposite is the case, and children are represented as "cheeky monkeys or worse!

  These characters are funny and appealing, yet naughty (like Bart Simpson)
• Victims- Stereotype of childhood


  In the news and also in drama series, children are often victims of crime, including murders and abductions
• Prodigies- Stereotype of childhood


  Children in the media are also often brilliant at something, such as maths or a musical instrument.

  News and magazine programmes often report on such child prodigies and they also make interesting characters in fiction
• Accessories- Stereotype of childhood


  Celebrity reporting often includes children, not as interesting individuals in their own right, but as "accessories" or "extras" alongside their famous parents or guardians
• Reorientation of representations of old age in the media

  Media companies and marketing agencies are beginning to see older adults as a section of society with more money and leisure time than most, and therefore it makes sense to present them positively and in such a way that attracts them.

  Lee (2007): Older adults in in advertisements are generally represented positively, as healthy, active people enjoying a "golden age".
• Robinson et al (2008)


  Older viewers were attracted to advertisements that presented their own age group positively: as vibrant and intelligent.

  Media representations that poked fun at older adults weren't liked by any age group.
• Media representations of the very rich (Social class): Celebrity

  The media takes significant interest in the very rich, often treating them as celebrities.

  Nairn (1988): The Royal family, whose life is treated like a soap opera, the media takes a great interest in minor aspects of their daily life. Royal events are always treated as national events.

  2/3 people weren't interested in the wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan.

  Neo marxist view
• Media representations of the very rich (Social class): Over represented

  The very rich and their interests are greatly over represented in the media.

  Newman (2006): The very rich represent a small proportion of society and yet media coverage of luxury cars and holidays, that are only of practical interest to this small minority, is considerable.
• Media representations of the middle class: Over represented


  They are probably even more over-represented than the very rich.

  Property programmes are exclusively aimed at middle class and upper class viewers.

  The budget the people have are far out of reach for most viewers.

  Middle class culture is presented as normal
• Media representations of the middle class: Dominant


  
  

  Guardian journalist, Owen Jones, has described the media as a "closed shop" for the upper and middle class.

  Middle class is very dominant in the media industry.
• Media representations of the middle class: Anxiety


  Middle class are represented as being anxious about contemporary society and prone to moral panic.

  Certain publications, like the Daily Mail, are aimed at the middle class and tend to run these sorts of stories on immigration, youth culture and terrorism.
• Stereotypes of old age: A Burden


  The ageing population is discussed in news as a problem.

  Presented as a burden to society and their families.
• Stereotypes of old age: Infantile


  Elderly people are often presented as childlike in the media, rather than as older adults.
• Stereotypes of old age: Demented or Confused


  Elderly people are presented as being mentally challenged.

  Often used in a comedic way and sometimes treated seriously (in medical dramas).
• Media representation of the working class: A problem


  Newman: Working class individuals are represented and stereotyped as a problem in the media. WC youth subcultures, welfare cheats or criminals.

  GUMG: Workers were represented as awkward and a problem, employers were seen as reasonable.

  Owen Jones: Demonization of the working class in his book
• Media representations of the working class: Shallow and Unintelligent


  Serious analysis is presented as being for the middle class wheras the shallow content of the newspaper like The Sun is aimed at the working class.

  Characters in shows are presented as unintelligent or as violent and prejudiced (e.g. Phill Mitchell in Eastenders)
• Media representations of poverty: Marginalised and Dehumanised


  Media focuses on statistics rather than individual stories of people living with poverty.

  McKendrick: Poverty was marginal in the media, very little exploration of the causes of poverty.
• Media representations of poverty: Entertainment


  Poverty is used as entertainment.

  Reality programmes like "Shameless" ignore the real lived experience of poverty.
• Representations of women in the media


  • Symbolic annihilation
  • The cult of femininity
  • Sex objects
  • Conflicted working mothers
• Symbolic annihilation


  Tuchman: The way women are left out of the media: their achievements are ignored or minimised; their interests and pursuits trivialised and devalued

  Newbold: Sports reporting marginalised and sexualised women's sport.
• The cult of femininity


  The media presents an ideal of womanhood that women were encouraged to aspire to: the "domestic goddess"

  Ferguson: Women were encouraged through magazines to focus on their appearance, marriage, domestic roles and children.
• Women represented as sex objects


  Wolf: Media represents women as sex objects for men's gratification.

  A particular body image is presented as ideal and anything short of that is a "work in progress".

  This is also referred to as the beauty myth.

  This idea suggests that women are used in the media for the male gaze.

  This has been linked to the issue of body image and eating disorders.
• Conflicted working mothers


  The media usually represents women in domestic and marginal roles. Where women are workers, especially working mothers, they are often represented as being highly conflicted, worrying about not fulfilling their main, domestic role
• Women empowered by the media

  • Transgressive roles
  • Sexually powerful
  • Independent
• Women empowered by the media: Transgressive roles


  Media representations reflect the way society has changed for women since the 1970s and 1980s.

  Women are much more likely to be focused on their careers, and career women now feature much more centrally, and positively, in the media.
• Women empowered by the media: Sexually powerful


  The idea of women as passive "sex objects" in the media, including in advertising, has changed.

  Gill: Women are not much more likely to be shown as powerful, using their sexuality to get what they want.

  Radical feminists say patriarchy has convinced women that they are in control when actually men are the ones getting what they want (sexualised images of women)
• Women empowered by the media: Independent


  There is a lot of focus in the media on independence and aspiration for women and girls.

  Pop music with singers like Beyonce and Taylor Swift sing about women's independence and control.

  Gauntlett: There's a greater emphasis on young women choosing their own path in life.
• Are women really empowered?

  McRobbie thinks that the apparent greater equality in the media today has been overstated and that there is an illusion of equality which is supported by media representations.
• Media representations of men

  Postmodernists: From the 1980s, magazines aimed at men and some depictions of men in the media have instead focused on men's vulnerable side, encouraging them to get in touch with their emotions.

  Concept of the "new man" and the media construct of "metrosexual" (focusing on fashion and appearance)
• Hegemonic masculinity


  Connell: There's a particular view of masculinity, of being a "real man", including gender hierarchy (men above women) and hierarchy among men (boys should aspire to become "alpha males")

  Manliness is measured on physical strength, competitiveness and success.
• Media representations of men

  A celebrity like David Beckham is presented as a "new man" in relation to his family commitment and as a "metrosexual" for his fashion sense, but he is rendered acceptable to hegemonic masculinity on account of have been good at sport and for marrying a Spice Girl.

  Contradiction discussed by Whannel.