Crime and Punishment

• What were Workhouses?


  - Workhouses were like homeless shelters set up in the 19th century (1800s) except the people were made to manual labour in exchange for this shelter as well as food, clothes etc. The conditions were deliberately harsh in an attempt to act a deterrent. Many during the Jacobean period believed that poverty was caused by laziness/lack of working rather then factoring in class and unfortunate circumstances. People believed the workhouses would cause those who were 'lazy' to finally get into the workforce. The attitude towards the homeless was mostly negative (example: the vagrancy act 1824 -> essentially criminalising homelessness and begging. These people were considered idle. In workhouses, families were split apart and people could be punished for even trying to communicate in one another. They had to wear uniforms and it was akin to a prison.
• What did Dr Barnardo do?


  - He set up orphanages/homes for boys and girls so that they would not have to be subjected to the horrific treatment in Workhouses. A home for boys was set up in 1870 and later one for girls and by 1905 there were nearly 100 homes in the UK.
• What was the environment like in Whitechapel?

  - London was heavily polluted. At times it was even difficult to see your hands in front of your face due to all of the smog. The sanitation was incredibly poor and there was little healthy drinking water. Most people had no running water in their homes and had to instead share a water pump and toilets were shared with neighbours. Sewerage from toilets and other rubbish was left to run through the streets. Sheep and cattle were herded through Whitechapel to slaughterhouses. The streets were covered in blood and excrement.
• What were the rookeries?

  - A disorganised labyrinth-like arrangement of horrible quality apartments which were haphazardly strung together, characterised by an infestation of dirt, disease and rampant crime. With, up to 30 people living in one apartment. In 1877 the rookery contained 123 apartments for 757 people were families hovered at the brink of starvation. There were no laws regarding housing quality or safety. Houses built back to back had poor ventilation and barely any people could comfortably afford lighting. It was dark, damp and miserable.
• What was a Doss house?

  - The rooms offered often little more then a bed in squalid conditions. Some had 8 hour sleeping shifts in a day so beds could be rented out to the maximum number of people. There were over 200 lodging houses/doss houses in Whitechapel alone which accounted for about a quarter of the population.
• What was the Peabody Estate?

  - A 11 new blocks of 286 flats opened in 1881 with shared laundry and bathroom facilities. Rent was reasonable and more affordable at three shillings per one room flat to six shillings for three rooms; the average wage for a labourer was 22 shillings and 6 pence at this time. Some poorer families were spending up to 8 shillings on their rent. For some, this estate was a life saver. Rent was paid weekly and there would be a curfew as well as a strict emphasis on moral standards and tenants were ensured to be of good moral character. However, there are sources to suggest that this Estate did nothing and was still unaffordable for the people in the most destitute conditions.
• How was Whitechapel street life described?

  - Descriptions of street life in Whitechapel were predominantly written by those who did not live there. Most of the people living in the slums/rookeries and poorer areas were illiterate so many descriptions written regarding these places were by middle class people who viewed these as filthy, noisy, crime-driven horrific unrefined places. Whitechapel may not have necessarily been this chaotic disgusting area rife with crime. Whilst it is true that Whitechapel had a very large population that lived near to or on the wrong side of the law. Overall, crime rates within Whitechapel were low - however many were more likely to commit crimes in the surrounding areas. Yet, it was an area frequented by those in search of prostitution as many women in their desperation to survive were driven to sex work. During the time, it was unheard of for women to work labour jobs or anything not traditionally feminine so many women's only choice of work was sex work.
• What was the employment like in Whitechapel?

  - Poor people from all over the world came to London in search of work. However, there were not enough jobs and houses and there was no unemployment benefit so people would do anything to earn money just to get by.

  - Many people worked in sweatshops to work in 'sweated trades' such as tailoring and shoe making. The hours were long - sometimes ranging up to 20 hours - and wages were low.

  - Others worked in railway construction or other similar labour jobs eg working at the docs and doing all the heavy lifting. However, the work on offer varied day to day meaning an uncertain income.

  - Unemployment was widespread.

  - Many women turned to prostitution as it was their only means of earning money.
• Why did the Irish Immigrants cause tensions in Whitechapel? Who were the Fenians?


  - Many Irish people moved to England following the potato famine.

  - Tension regarding job competition and resources

  - They were rather disliked and violence was common this may have been been due to the bomb attack by Fenians (Irish nationalists who demanded freedom from UK rule -> catholic group seen as fanatical religious terrorists) known as Dynamite Sunday which caused great damage to the tower of London and Houses of Parliament. This may have led to people stereotyping the Irish as dangerous fanatics and led people to be more cautious and hostile towards them.
• Why did the Socialists cause tension in Whitechapel? Who were they?

  - The SDF was the Socialist party in Britain which started in 1881. They represented the working class people and supported rights for women. In 1888, they campaigned for a new London County Council and made promises to poorer communities.

  - Bloody Sunday -> Riot act read not heard and the demonstrators did not disperse leading to violence. This led to conflict between the MET police and Socialist groups. Consequently, the group portrayed the police as incompetent, mocked them with penny dreadfuls and refused to co-operate with police who were investigating the Ripper case.
• Why did Anarchists cause tension in Whitechapel and who were they?

  - Anarchists believed in the abolishment of the state. There was a growth of revolutionary political movements in Paris and a failed/brief revolution in 1871. Many of the leaders involved fled to Britain.

  - They were seen as terrorists. East London was even perceived as 'a refuge for other countries' terrorists' any threats/bombings were greatly exaggerated and 'blown out of proportion' which furthered hostilities and they were demonised and feared.
• Why did Eastern European Jewish Immigrants cause tensions in Whitechapel? Who were they?

  - Many of these Jewish immigrants were fleeing the Pogroms in Russia - Tsar Alexander II of Russia was assassinated and the Jews were the scapegoat/blamed.

  - In 1888, the Jewish population in parts of Whitechapel was 95%.

  - They were othered. (ingroup vs outgroup -> categorisation)

  - Cultural differences + resented for their success.
• What were some factors that made policing in a slum area of Whitechapel difficult?

  - Hostility and uncooperativeness from civilians. Attitudes towards the H division were rather negative in Whitechapel and they were subjected to a lot of violent attacks.

  - Complex layouts

  - Economic depression and poverty -> Police were often seen as the government in disguise. Many of those in areas of economic depression are justifiably angry at their quality of life and publicly protest. Police are sent in to restore order and to some put down the voices of the poor. This led to many becoming hostile towards the police as it seemed to benefit the higher classes.

  - The rookeries were poorly lit and criminals could hide or easily escape.

  - Prostitution -> 68 brothels in Whitechapel with around 1200 prostitutes. This was not illegal but was seen as a social problem. There was a lack of contraception during the Jacobean period and consequently this led to a high about of back-alley or 'coat hanger' abortions as abortion was illegal. There was the common perception that women 'deserved it' or 'got what they deserved' when many died due to infection when attempting to get abortions or got STDs/STIs. But, many were unaware for many women it was 'prostitution or starve.'

  - Gin was accessible to all classes. It's understandable due to the horrific conditions that many would turn to alcoholism and become helpless alcoholics to cope with their bleak and traumatic situation. However, this led to a lot of drunk and disorderly violence

  - Immigration tensions

  - Protection Rackets

  - H division were overstretched and understaffed

  - Conflict with residents as they were seen as 'meddling' as local authorities saw them as a kind of social worker (dealing with vagrancy, stray children, fires, street traffic etc)
• What were 'Protection Rackets?'

  - Gangs would demand money from small business owners for 'protection' if the owners refused to pay they would have their shop or market stall smashed to pieces.
• How did the H division deal with uncooperative citizens?

  - The H division set up soup kitchens which provided food for the poor and they looked after stray children. Sometimes, they offered food in exchange for information etc which provided incentive for people to drop their hostilities. Starving was more of a problem then their dislike towards policing.
• What was the name of each period studied in Crime and Punishment and the years of each period?

  - Saxon Period 400-1100AD (1066+ technically Norman Period)

  - Middle Ages 1100-1500AD

  - Early Modern 1500-1750AD (1485-1603 Tudors)

  - Industrial Period 1750-1900AD

  - Modern/Present 1900-NOW

  
  

  NOTE: Whitechapel Case Study 1870-1900AD
• Describe Policing in the Saxon Period (400-1100AD)

  - Saxon England consisted of small communities where everyone typically knew everyone in their tithing/area. This is what made COLLECTIVE POLICING a viable method of policing. One example of this was the HUE AND CRY of which when a crime was committed the victim could alert the neighbourhood and you had to drop everything you were doing to help pursue the criminal. Another example of this was the system of TITHINGS where any men over 12 formed a group of ten where they were all responsible for one another. If one of them broke the law, the others had to bring them to court.

  - BLOOD FUEDS -> 'Eye for an eye' these just bred more violence and led to generational disputes.
• Describe Policing in the Middle Ages (1100-1500) was this change or continuity from the saxon period?

  - HUE AND CRY and TITHINGS were still used (Continuity)

  - However, this is the first introduction of government officials such as a COUNTY CORONER (1190s) or SHERIFF playing a leading role in investigating crimes. Leading villagers were appointed as CONSTABLES (1250s) to keep order. This wasn't a fully fledged well paid profession yet and was typically dangerous.
• Describe Policing in the Early Modern Period (1500-1750AD). What were the changes and continuity from prior periods?

  - HUE AND CRY (Continuity w/ prior periods) -> However, the constable was expected to lead the hue and cry.

  - Introduction of the LOCAL POSSE COMITATUS (similar to a police force -> called upon by the sheriff to help keep the peace or conduct an arrest)

  - CONSTABLES (Continuity w/ the Middle Ages) dealt with everyday matters and they were rewarded for each arrest (no consistent wages -> more inclined to make arrests to make money)

  - THIEF-TAKERS -> Similar to bounty hunters today. They'd track down criminals and collect rewards.

  - Watchmen (Charleys 1663) + Sergeants -> patrols

  - Charleys -> First time policing was PAID though poorly and it was only a part-time job that they stayed in for a year -> system set up by Charles II

  - Near the very end of the Early Modern Period (1740s) the Bow Street Runners were established (in 1742) they were paid and trained and worked full time and were founded by Henry Fielding.
• Why was there a revolution in policing in the Industrial Period (1750-1900)? Describe Policing in this Period and the changes/continuity.

  - The Industrial revolution wasn't the only revolution in this period. For the MET (metropolitan police) police were established in 1829 with 3200 officers to police a seven mile circle. They were paid and trained and worked full time (Unlike the Constables in the 1250s)

  - 1798 -> River Thames Police

  - Bow Street Runners were still around however there were only 68 for the entirety of London in 1800

  - The introduction of the NEWS SHEET, named after the Hue and Cry in homage, this documented and detailed crimes and criminals and was the first case of information sharing amongst police forces. Now, criminals couldn't just move to a different place to avoid being persecuted.
• When were County Coroners introduced?

  1190s
• When were Constables introduced?

  1250s
• When were Charleys/Watchmen introduced?

  1663
• When were the Bow Street Runners established and by who?

  1749 , Henry Fielding
• When was the MET established and by who?

  1829, Robert Peel
• When was the first detective force established?

  1842
• How many police officers were in Britain in 1884?

  39,000
• When was it made compulsory for towns/counties to have a police force?

  1856
• What were the attitudes towards having a police force and why?

  NEGATIVE

  - People feared the tax increase/cost

  - People feared they would encroach on your privacy/restrict your liberties

  - Many thought it would be ineffective

  - People thought the government would use it to spy on them

  - People saw the police as the government in disguise and many, especially those in poorer communities, acted hostile or violent towards them because of this.

  
  

  POSITIVE

  - Fear of protests (mainly from those of higher classes)

  - Growth of towns and seeing how ineffective previous methods are

  - People actually seeing the effects and positive impacts of the police or being helped by them

  - The increase in crime/fearmongering of crime through media
• When did the last hanging take place?

  1868
• When was Capital Punishment abolished in the UK?

  1998
• Describe Punishment in the Saxon Period (400-1100AD)

  - WERGILD -> A system of fines paid to the victims of a crime in the form of compensation (most common punishment in the earlier Saxon period)

  - MUTILATION -> cutting off a hand, ear, nose, blinding etc. By 1100 physical punishments/executions were far more common.

  - DEATH PENALTY -> Often a public event (Fear tactic + Humiliation) for crimes such as treason, blasphemy, betraying your lord etc. They were demonstrative. Methods of execution were typically as follows: Hanging and Beheading.
• Describe Punishment in the Early Modern Period (1500-1750AD)


  - BLOODY CODE -> Increase in the number of crimes punishable by death eg even pickpocketing, cutting down trees and sending threatening letters was punishable by death. This was meant to be a deterrent from crime. In 1688 the number of crimes punishable by death was 50 and by 1815 this was 215.

  - PRISONS were now use largely for debters and the sentence of imprisonment was rare.

  - Fines for minor offences eg swearing, gambling, failing to attend church, drunkenness

  - TRANSPORATION -> from the 1660s criminals were sent to American colonies. Between the Transportation Act of 1718 and 1769 70% of criminals convicted at the Old Bailey in London were transported. Transportation was most commonly used to punish murderers who had escaped execution. Some lived in slave like conditions and others were more fortunate. The sentencing was typically '7 years, 14 years or life' but most couldn't afford to travel back to England and just settled in Australia. It was criticised for being a soft option.

  - Public Whippings

  - Pillory (pelted with stones some criminals especially those who committed sexual crimes were even killed at the Pillory) + Stocks (mainly for those who could not afford fines) + Ducking Stool + Carting (paraded around the streets) -> all humiliation

  - Bridewells (house of correction) -> Punish and reform offenders. Consisted of Vagrants, unmarried mothers and runaway apprentices they were whipped and set to hard work. Authorities believe crime was a result of not working enough (reminiscent of the reasoning behind Workhouses in the Industrial Era)

  - Puritan Britain -> Controlled parliament in the 1640s/1650s -> Banned Christmas, anything on a Sunday (walking for no reason on the lord's day), cutting hair, taverns/inns/theatres
• Describe Punishment in the Middle Ages (1100-1500) what were the changes

  - PRISON (CHANGE) -> Only used for holding the accused before trial

  - Executions and other Physical punishments were still the most common form of punishment along with fines.

  - Serious crimes were punished by death and frequent reoffenders were mutilated or executed

  - Fines became more common
• How many crimes were punishable by death in 1688?

  50
• How many crimes were punishable by death in 1815?

  225
• Describe the changes/continuity of transporation in the Early Modern Period compared to the Industrial Period?

  - Transporation was introduced in the Early Modern period and continued to be used in the Industrial Period (Continuity) The only difference was in the 1660s they could send ships with convicts to America however when American colonies gained independence in the 1780s Britain started shipping their convicts to Australia.
• What type of person was typically transported?

  - A typical convict arriving would be a 26 year old man who was probably convicted of several cases of small scale theft. 80% of those transported were thieves. Only 3% were guilty of violent crimes. Only 1/6th were women.
• What happened to criminals who were transported? What was it like in Australia? (1750-1900 Industrial Period)

  - The voyage was cramped and unpleasant however by 1830 only 1% of convicts died on the journey which now took less than 4 months (typically took approx. 8)

  - Convicts were assigned to settlers and their sentence was whatever work they were assigned by them. In turn the settler would provide food, clothes and shelter.

  - Good behaviour won a 'ticket of leave' or early release this to some provided a motive to reform and they were also granted a new opportunity to turn their life around in Australia.

  - Punishments for bad behaviour eg floggings or being sent to remote settlements.
• Why did the government introduce transportation to Australia?

  - Good alternative to hanging and many people felt this was too harsh for minor crimes which led to some courts being unwilling to convict people. Imprisonment was seen as too expensive. So this was the 'middle punishment' between the death sentence and pillory/whipping etc

  - Hoped the idea of being sent to an unknown place would act as a deterrent and frighten people.

  - It would reduce the number of criminals physically living in Britain

  - It would help Britain claim Australia as part of it's empire

  - It would help reform criminals by making them work hard and learn skills which they could put to use when freed.