Memory

• What is encoding?


  Changing information into a form so it can be held in the brain.
• What is visual encoding?

  Changing information by how it looks so it can be stored
• What is acoustic encoding?


  Changing information by how it sounds so it can be stored
• What is semantic encoding?

  Changing information by its meaning so it can be stored
• What are other types of encoding?

  Tactile-memory of what things feel like to touch

  Olfactory-memory for smell
• What is storage?

  Holding information in memory so it can be retrieved later
• What is retrieval?


  Locating and bringing back information into mind
• What are the 3 different types of retrieval?

  1)Recognition-identifying from options

  2)Cued recall-locating information with a clue

  3)Free recall-without cues
• Describe Baddeley's study of encoding

  Aim-to see if there was a difference in the type of encoding used in STM and LTM

  Method-Participants learned words with similar or dissimilar meaning (e.g cat ,cab ,can or pit, few,cow)-Followed by immediate recall

  The participants learned words with similar/dissimilar meanings and recall was done after 20 minutes.

  Results-Similar sounding words were poorly recalled in the STM however, words with similar meanings (great, large or big) were poorly recalled in the LTM

  Conclusion-LTM is encoded by meaning whilst STM is encoded by sound
• Evaluate Baddeleys study of encoding

  [+]Controlled experiment-it is well controlled as extraneous variables like participants hearing were controlled by a hearing test.

  [-] STM is sometimes visual, encoding in STM does not always include sound

  [-] 20 minutes may have not been long enough for LTM so conclusion lacks validity because the ppts may have forgotten the list the next day.
• What is episodic memory?

  A type of LTM.

  Memory of events in your life
• What is semantic memory?

  A type of LTM.

  Memory of what things mean

  (own encyclopedia )
• What is procedural memory?


  A type of LTM.

  Memory of how to do things
• What are the evaluations of the LTM types?

  1)There are specific brain locations-brain scans show different types of LTM relate to different brain locations

  e.g procedural+motor area

  2)Amnesiac patients-like Clive Wearing support this as most of his procedural but not episodic memories were intact.

  3)Different types of LTM may be hard to separate so it may be a case of oversimplification.
• What is the multi-store model?

  Three memory store:different coding, capacity and duration.

  Information movs through attention and verbal rehearsal.
• What role does sensory memory play in the multi store model?

  Very short duration, large capacity

  Attention transfers information to STM.
• What role does short term memory play in the multi store model?

  Limited duration (30 seconds) and capacity (5-9 items),acoustic encoding.
• What is the role of rehearsal in the multi store model?


  Rehearsal keeps information in STM.

  Repeat rehearsal transfers transfers STM into LTM.
• What role does long term memory play in the multi store model?

  Semantic coding, unlimited capacity and stored up to a lifetime.
• What is the evaluation of the multi store model?

  Supporting research-encoding research (Baddeleys) shows qualitative differences between STM and LTM.

  Simple model-having one STM and LTM store is too simplistic e.g more than one LTM store.

  Artificial materials-research uses word lists or consonant syllables so the model lacks validity.
• what is the primacy/recency effect?

  Words at beginning are remembered more (rehearsed so in LTM)

  Words at end are remembered more (heard recently, so in STM)
• Describe Murdock's study


  Aim-to see if memory of words is affected by location in a list.

  Method-participants listened to 20 word lists with 10-40 words on them, recalled words after each list.

  Results-recall related to position of words.Higher recall for the first words (primacy effect) than in middle.

  Conclusion-Shows the serial position effect and supports the MSM stores.
• Evaluate Murdock's study

  1)Controlled lab study-there was a high level of control so it could be concluded position of words determined recall.

  2)Artificial task-word lists were used which is only one type of memory so the study lacks validity.

  3)Supporting research-some amnesiacs cant store LTM ,which shows the primacy effect is related to LTM.
• Describe Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" study

  Aim-to see how memory is reconstructed when recalling an unfamiliar story.

  Method-The War of the Ghosts story was read by one participant and recalled after 15 minutes, then read by another participant and recalled and so on.

  Results-Participants changed the story to fit cultural expectations ,leaving out unfamiliar information.

  Conclusions-We use our knowledge of social situations to reconstruct memory.
• Evaluate Bartlett's War of the Ghosts study...

  Lacks control-participants weren't told accurate recall was important, which could have affected results.

  Results were biased-Bartlett analysed the recollections himself, so we cannot fully trust the conclusion.

  Story was unusual-the study was unusual so may not reflect everyday memory processes.
• Describe the theory of reconstructive memory

  1)The theory-people rebuild memory as an active process.

  2)Memory is inaccurate-memory is not a process of exact reproduction of experiences.

  3)Reconstruction-record pieces of information, recombine to tell the whole story.

  4)Social and Cultural influences-expectations come from the world/culture we live inland affect storage and recall.

  5)Effort after meaning-we focus on the meaning of events and make an effort afterwards to make sense of fragments of memory.
• Evaluate the theory of reconstructive memory

  More realistic research-reflects how we use memory in everyday life because it uses a story not word lists.

  Some memories are accurate-Not all recall is reconstructed as some memories of the story are accurate.

  Real-world application-it explains problems with eyewitness testimony as people do not always recall accurately.
• Describe McGeoch and McDonald's study

  Aim-to see the effect of doing two activities on accuracy of memory.

  Method-learned a list of 10 words and then another list of varying types e.g synonyms and antonyms

  Results-Memory was affected by the second list, most of all if second list had similar meaning (synonyms

  Conclusions-shows inference affects accuracy of memory and is strongest when you try remember two similar things.
• Evaluate McGeoch and McDonald's study

  Controlled research -high control e.g counterbalancing, was used to reduce bias.

  Artificial task-it does not reflect real-life memory as we don't often have to remember very similar words.

  Not really forgetting-It may be information is not forgotten but just cannot be accessed, so isn't actually forgotten.
• Describe Godden and Baddeley's study


  Aim-to see if context improved recall.

  Method-drivers listened to and recalled words in the same or different environment on the beach and underwater.

  Results-Recall was the highest in the same environment for learning and recall.

  Conclusions-Context of learning acts as a trigger or cue, improving the accuracy of memory.
• Evaluate Godden and Baddeley's study


  Artificial task-list of words were used.When more complex materials were used, better recall was found.

  Recall was short term-Participants recalled the words almost immediately, unlike in everyday life.

  Similar context-Context only acts a cue if context at learning and recall are very similar, which rarely happens.
• Describe Loftus and Pickrells study

  Aim-to see if false memories could be created in participants through suggestion

  Method-Four stories about childhood events were read where three were true and one was false (shopping mall)

  Results-6 out of 24 (25%) of participant recalled the false story fully or partially.

  Conclusions-Imagining an event can implant a false memory in a person, reducing accuracy of memory.
• Evaluate Loftus and Pickrells study

  Artificial task-harmless events could be implanted easily but traumatic events may notes conclusions are limited.

  Ethical issues-participants may be left with implanted false memories which lingered after the study, causing distress

  Real world application-research has implications for eyewitness testimony as police questioning could accidentally implant false memories.