Research Methods

• How do we start out when having an hypotheses?

  -We have a theory-An explanation for behaviour, tested using objective research methods.

  -Formulating an aim-A general statement explaining the purpose of study.

  -Variables-Anything that you can change or vary

  Independant variable (IV)-deliberately changed

  Dependant variable (DV)-what is being measured

  -Operationalisation-making variables clearly defined and measurable.

  -Formulating a testable hypothesis-A clear precise testable statement, the DV + two levels of the IV.

  -Alternative hypothesis-statement of relationship between variables.

  -Null hypothesis-a statement of no relationship between the variables.
• What are extraneous variables?


  -Cause and effect-the only thing that should cause a change in the DV is the IV.

  -Extraneous variables (EVs)-Unwanted variables that could affect the DV.

  -Then the change in the DV is due to EV not IV.
• What are the research procedures?

  -Instructions to participants-Giving the same information about the study to all participants.

  -Standardised to procedure-Using the exact same methods and procedures for participants in a research study.

  Aims to control EVs.

  -Randomisation-Using chance (tossing a coin) to control effects of bias when designing a study.
• What are ethical issues?

  Conflict between participants rights and well being and the need to gain valuable results.

  -Informed consent

  -Deception

  -Privacy

  -Confidentiality
• What is informed consent?


  Participants should be told the purpose of research and that they can leave at any time.
• What is deception?


  Participants should not be lied to or misled about aims.

  Mild deception can be justified.
• What is privacy?


  Participants have the right to control information about themselves
• What is confidentiality?


  Personal data must be protected and respected.
• What are the ways of dealing with ethical issues?

  -BPS guidelines-A code of conduct all professional psychologist in the UK must follow.

  -Dealing with informed consent-Participants (guidelines) sign a form that tells them what is expected.

  -Dealing with deception and protection-Participants have a full debrief to explain true aims, reduce distress

  -Dealing with privacy and confidentiality-Participants should be anonymous(given numbers or referred to by initials)
• What is a BPS


  A code of conduct all professional psychologist in the UK must follow.
• How do we deal with informed consent?


  Participants (guidelines) sign a form that tells them what is expected.
• How do we deal with deception and protection?


  Participants have a full debrief to explain true aims, reduce distress
• How do we deal with privacy and confidentiality?

  Participants should be anonymous(given numbers or referred to by initials)
• What is reliability?


  a measure of consistency
• What are quantitative methods for reliability?

  -Tend to be the most reliable

  -Laboratory experiments-controlled and easy to repeat exactly

  -Interviews/Questionnaires-same person should answer the same questions in the same way.Closed questions likely to be more reliable.

  -Observations-One observer should produce the same observations if repeated, or two observers (inter observer reliability)
• What are the qualitative methods for reliability?

  -Less reliable

  -Case studies and unstructured interviews are difficult to repeat in the same way.
• What is validity


  Relates to whether a result is a true reflection of 'real-world' behaviour.
• How does validity differ in sampling methods?

  -Sample may not represent target population

  -Representativeness low in opportunity sampling and high in stratified sampling.
• How does validity differ in experimental designs?

  -Repeated measures-order effects challenge validity, overcome by counterbalancing.

  -Independent groups-Participants variables challenge validity, overcome by random allocation.
• How does validity differ in quantitative methods?

  -Laboratory experiments- Task, setting, participant awareness challenge validity.But there is high control.

  -Field experiments-Task and control challenge validity.But it is more natural.

  -Methods producing numerical data (e.g questionnaires) lack validity as they reduce behaviour to a score.
• How does validity differ in qualitative methods?

  -Case studies have greater validity as they give deeper insight into behaviour.

  -Difficult to analyse, which reduces validity.
• What is the overall conditions for sampling?

  -Sample chosen from the target population

  -Sample should represent target population for making generalisations.

  -Sampling methods aim to avoid bias.
• What is a target population?

  group of people being studied who have the same conditions
• What is random sampling?

  -Each person has an equal chance of selection

  -Numbers of target population in hat/random generator.
• Evaluate random sampling


  Strength-No bias as everyone has an equal chance of selection

  Weakness-Takes time as need list of all the members of the target population.
• What is opportunity sampling?

  selecting anyone who is available and willing to take part in the study at the time
• Evaluate opportunity sampling


  Strength-Quick and therefore cheap because participants are just there.

  Weakness-Only represents the population from which it was drawn.
• What is systematic sampling?

  Selecting participants in proportion to frequency in target population.
• Evaluate stratified sampling


  -Strength-most representative method

  -Weakness-very time consuming to sort the subgroups

  -Weakness-cannot reflect how people are different- not complete representation.
• What are correlations?


  Correlations show how things are linked together, associations.
• Describe the use of correlations

  -Co-variables- correlations are quantitative-continuous numerical data.

  -Scatter diagram-A special graph used to plot correlation data.One co-variable on the x-axis and the other on the y-axis.A dot is places where they meet.

  -Types of correlation-

  Positive:as one co-variable increases, the other increases

  Negative:as one co-variable increases, the other decreases.

  Zero-No relationship between co-variables
• Evaluate the use of correlations

  STRENGTH-Good starting point for research.Can be used to investigate curvilinear relationships, so many uses.

  WEAKNESS- Doesn't show cause and effect.No control of EVs, so conclusions drawn, may be wrong.
• Describe the use of interviews

  -Structured interviews-Interviewer reads list of questions.Can have prepared follow-up questions.

  -Unstructured interviews-Some questions prepared before.New questions created depending on what interviewee says

  -Semi-structured interviews-Some questions decided before but follow-up questions emerge.
• What are interviews?


  Face to face, real-time contact, though also on phone/text.
• Evaluate the use of interviews

  -Strengths-produces a lot of information.Insight gained into thoughts and feelings.

  -Weaknesses-Data can be difficult to analyse.People may feel uncomfortable talking face to face.
• Describe the use of questionnaires

  Opened and closed questions-

  Open questions tend to produce qualitative data.

  Closed questions have a fixed range of answers e.g rating scale, yes/no
• What are questionnaires?


  Prepared list of questions which can be answered in writing, over the phone, internet etc.
• Evaluate the use of question

  STRENGTHS-can gather information from many people.Easy to analyse as often use closed questions.

  WEAKNESSES-Social desirability bias. Questions may be leadings lack validity.
• What are experiments?


  -Look at a measurable change in the DV (quantitative), caused by the change to the IV.
• Describe the use of laboratory experiments

  -Experimenter has high control over what happens.

  -Takes place in a laboratory.