cognitive approach

• Assumption 1: Computer Analogy

  Cognitive psychologists compare the human mind with a computer. Basically, they compare how we take in information(input), change/store it (process) and then recall it when necessary(output). During process, we actively use the cognitive processes of perception, attention, memory etc, thus our mind is compared with the hardware of a computer. E.g - multistore memory model.
• Assumption 2: Internal Mental Process

  Human beings are basically processors, where essential cognitive processes all work together to enable us to make sense of and respond to the world around us. Most studied processes include perception, memory, attention language. These processes all relate to each other and constantly work together to help us understand our environment.
• Assumption 3: Schemas


  Schemas are organised packets of information that are built up through experience and stored in our long-term memory. E.g - dog schema. Generally schemas are from the past but they can be refined through further interactions with people and the world around us. Schemas do not necessarily represent reality as they are often built up via social exchanges rather than personal experiences.
• Relationship Formation


  Use the concept of schemas to explain romantic relationships. Self-schemas refer to how we feel about ourselves and how we perceive ourselves (self-concept). These are important in the Matching Hypothesis explanation. How we perceive ourselves in terms of physical attractiveness will influence who we engage in relationships with. We are attracted to those who we feel match us in terms of physical attractiveness. So high self-concept means that we will 'try our luck' with highly attractive others. Low self-concept means we will not reach out in fear of rejection.
• Therapy: REBT


  Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy

  The ABC model is a way of identifying irrational thoughts. A = the activating event, a situation that results in feelings of frustration and anxiety. B= the irrational beliefs from the A situation. C= the self-defeating consequences caused by the B beliefs. The model is then extended to include D and E which solve the issue. D= disputing the beliefs. E= the effects of disputing. Remember that it is not the A event that leads to unproductive consequences but the beliefs that stem from it.
• Therapy: REBT- Musturbatory thinking


  The source of irrational beliefs lie here - thinking that certain ideas or assumptions 'must' be true in order for an individual to be happy. Ellis identified the 3 most important irrational beliefs:

  I must be approved of or accepted by those important to me.

  I must do well or I am worthless

  The world must give me happiness or I will die.

  Such 'musts' need to be challenged in order for mental healthiness to prevail.
• Therapy: REBT - Unconditional positive regard


  Ellis (1994) recognised that an important ingredient for successful therapy was convincing the client of their value as a human being. If the client feels worthless then thy will be less willing to consider changing their beliefs and behaviours. However, if the therapist provides respect and appreciation regardless, then this will facilitate a change in beliefs and attitudes.
• Therapy: REBT - Evaluation


  Research Evidence- REBT has generally been shown to be effective in outcome studies. E.g Engles et al (1993) claimed a 90% success rate and Silverman et al (1992)found REBT to be equal to or more effective than other treatments.

  Not Suitable For All- REBT does not always work. Ellis (2001) believed that people who claimed to be following the principles were not putting their revised beliefs into action and it was therefore not effective.

  Irrational Environments- REBT fails to address the issue that environments in which clients exist continue beyond the therapy room e.g partners and bosses. These environments continue to produce and reinforce irrational thoughts and maladaptive behaviours.

  Ethical Issue- client distress can occur as the therapist is aggressively challenging the client's thinking which could be considered unethical as it causes unnecessary anxiety.
• Classic Evidence: Loftus&Palmer(1974)


  Aim: to investigate the effect of leading questions on the estimation of speed.

  Sample: E1 had 45 students, E2 had 150

  Design: Independent Groups

  Laboratory Experiment.

  Procedure: Experiment 1- participants were shown 7 film clips of different traffic accidents, each 5-30 seconds. After each clip, they got a questionnaire asking to give an account of the accident. The critical question was 'how far were the cars going when they ___ each other?' The verb in the blank varied in each group, being either: hit, smashed, collided, bumped or contacted. Participants (9 to each verb) estimated the speed in mph.

  Experiment 2- participants were shown a film of a multiple car crash and then were asked some questions, including the speed estimate. They were split into 3 groups. G1 had the verb 'smashed', G2 had 'hit' and G3 was a control group that was not asked. A week later the participants returned and were asked more questions. The critical question was 'did you see any broken glass?' There wasn't any.
• Classic Evidence: Loftus&Palmer (1974): Findings


  Experiment 1: the mean speed was calculated for each group. 'Smashed' received the highest average of 40.8mph whereas 'contacted' had the lowest at 31.8mph. 'Hit' was 34mph

  Experiment 2: Same results as E1 for speed estimates. 16 in the 'smashed' group reported seeing broken glass oppose to only 6 in the control group.
• Classic Evidence: Loftus&Palmer (1974): Conclusion


  The findings indicate that the form of a question can markedly and systematically affect a witness' answer to that question. L&P propose two explanations for such: Response-Bias Factors- the critical word influences or biases a person's response. Memory Representation is Altered- the critical word changes a person's memory so that their perception of the accident is affected.
• Classic Evidence: Loftus&Palmer (1974): Evaluation


  Controlled Experiment- all research was done using experiments which is good as it demonstrates a causal relationship and there is high control over extraneous variables.

  Ecological Validity- Watching film clips does not represent real-life situations. Foster et al (1994) found that if participants thought their response would affect a proper trial verdict.

  Sample- all US college students. Other groups of people may respond differently e.g different ages.

  Lack Of Valid Consent- L&P did not gain valid consent from the participants. This kind of deception could be considered mild as no harm was caused to the participants.
• Strengths of the Cognitive Approach


  Mediational Processes- it focuses on the important 'processes' that occur between stimulus and response. Cognitive psychologists have gone some way to explaining how important mediational processes, such as perception and memory, affect the way we respond to the world around us.

  Important Contributions- it has influenced many areas of psychology like CBT to treat depression and in developmental psychology like the theories on how children's thinking develops.

  Scientific- memory research has generally been conducted under strict laboratory conditions and more recently has involved brain scanning techniques to pinpoint specific areas of the brain involved with short-term and long-term memory.
• Weaknesses of the Cognitive Approach


  Nature&Nurture- it does consider both however it fails to consider important elements of each like the role of genes in human cognition is ignored and important social and cultural factors are often overlooked.
• Computer analogy


  Cognitive psychologists often compare the human mind to a computer. How we take in information is called input (through the sense in humans). The mind processing the information is called the process and the recalling of useful information is called the output
• Example of computer anaolgy

  Multi store model of memory

  
• Internal mental processes


  Humans are seen as information processors. They want to know how information is received from our senses and processed by the brain.

  Mental processes

  Memory - The structure and processes involved in the storage and retrieval of information.

  Attention - Taking possession of the mind in a clear and vivid form. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others.
• Example of Internal mental processes


  Wilhelm Wundt tried to investigate thinking in a scientific and systematic way. He used highly trained research assistants who would be given a stimulus and would report what the stimulus made them think and feel.
• Schemas


  They form part of the mental process, They are mental structures that represent an aspect of the world. They help us to make sense of the world.
• Example of schemas


  Piaget(1952) - defined a schema as a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.

  Wadsworth(2004) - suggested that schemata be thought of as index cards filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to information.
• Errors in attribution


  Depressed people tend to have similar patterns of attribution. They see themselves as a victim of circumstance.
• Errors in attribution Yost and Weary (1996)

  compared depressed and non depressed students with an attribution task. They found that depressed people made situational attributions. This suggests that they might feel powerless against forces beyond their control.
• Errors in attribution Wall and Haynes (2000)

  Found that depressed patients tended to assign internal attributions for things that went wrong. This suggests that depressed people blame themselves for any negative event.
• Structure of a CBT session

  Sessions are usually once a week with a therapist for a course of treatment between five and twenty sessions, each session lasts about 30-60 minutes.

  1)The therapist will try and break down the problems into three parts - thought, feelings, actions.

  2)The client and the therapist then analyse these areas to work out if they are unrealistic or unhelpful and determine the effect they have on you.

  3)The therapist is then able to help you work out how to change unhelpful thoughts and behaviours,

  4)The client is then asked to practice these changes and discuss how they got on in the next session.

  5)The aim of the therapy is to teach the client to apply the skills they have learnt during the treatment to real life.
• Outline Cahill's 2003 study on CBT

  Assessed the severity of symptoms after each therapy session of 58 patients who were receiving CBT for depression. By the end of the therapy 71% of patients had a significant reduction in their symptoms. However only 13% of patients who did not complete the therapy showed improvement
• What does Cahill's study show us about CBT

  Effective therapy because most patients showed improved symptoms. However you have to complete the course in order for improved symptoms.
• Outline Lewinsohn's 1981 study on CBT


  Studied a group of participants before any of them became depressed. He found that those who later became depressed were no more likely to have negative thoughts than those who did not develop depression.This suggests that negative thinking may be a result of depression, rather than the cause of it.
• What does Lewinsohn's study show us about CBT

  Goes against the effectiveness of CBT because if negative thoughts are not causing depression then CBT is ineffective. However does suggest that negative thoughts are a result of depression.
• Protection from harm (ethical issue of CBT )

  CBT involves asking patients to pinpoint their negative thoughts and behaviours and the situations in which they arise. This could cause distress to the patient. Therapists must ensure that patients are not caused any unnecessary distress and are only asked to discuss issues relevant to their therapy
• Bias (ethical issue of CBT )


  Therapists must not allow their patients sex,age,colour,religion or believes affect the way they treat their patients. The therapist must ensure that every patient is treated in the same way, with the same level of care and dignity.