COSC

• Computer Architecture


  The attributes of a system visible to a programmer or that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program
• Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

  Defines instruction formats, instruction opcodes, registers, instruction and data memory
• Computer Organization


  The operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications
• IBM System/370 architecture


  • Introduced in 1970, offered various models to suit different needs
  • Customers could start with a basic model and later upgrade to faster ones without losing their software investments
  • IBM continually improved technology while retaining the same architecture, ensuring software compatibility and protecting customer investments
  • Today, with enhancements, the System/370 architecture remains the foundation of IBM's mainframe product line
• Microcomputers


  The relationship between architecture and organization is very close
• Computers


  • Complex systems with millions of electronic components
  • Hierarchical nature - comprised of interrelated subsystems, each containing lower-level subsystems, eventually reaching elementary components
  • Facilitates design and description - designers focus on one level at a time, behavior at each level depends on a simplified representation of the next lower level
  • Emphasis on structure and function at each level
• 4 basic functions a computer can perform

  • Data processing
  • Data storage
  • Data movement
  • Control
• Simple Single-Processor Computer


  • Central Processing Unit (CPU) controls operation and handles data processing
  • Main Memory stores data
  • Input/Output (I/O) manages movement of data between computer and external environment
  • System Interconnection allows communication between CPU, main memory, and I/O
• Major structural components of CPU


  • Control Unit manages CPU operation and entire computer
  • Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) handles data processing tasks
  • Registers provide internal storage for CPU
  • CPU Interconnection enables communication between control unit, ALU, and registers
• Multicore Computer Structure


  • Central Processing Unit (CPU) fetches and executes instructions
  • Core is an individual processing unit on a processor chip, can function similarly to a CPU in a single-CPU system
  • Processor is a physical silicon piece containing one or more cores
• Motherboard Components


  • Printed circuit board (PCB)
  • Chips - integrated circuits made of semiconducting material
  • Processor chip - contains multiple cores and L3 cache
• Core Functional Elements


  • Instruction logic - fetches and decodes instructions
  • Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) - performs operations
  • Load/store logic - manages data transfer
• Cache Memory


  • L1 cache includes instruction cache (I-cache) and data cache
  • L2 cache often split between instruction and data caches or combined
• Motherboard for a computer with two Intel Quad-Core Xeon processor chips
• Motherboard Components


  • PCI-Express slots for high-end display adapter and additional peripherals
  • Ethernet controller and ports for network connections
  • USB sockets for peripheral devices
  • Serial ATA (SATA) sockets for disk memory connection
  • Interfaces for DDR main memory chips
  • Intel 3420 chipset for I/O control and direct memory access operations
• Processor Chip Internal Structure (IBM z13 Mainframe)

  • 3.99 billion transistors
  • Eight cores or processors
  • Substantial portion dedicated to shared L3 cache
  • L3 control logic manages traffic between cache, cores, and external environment
  • Storage control (SC) logic between cores and L3 cache
  • Memory controller (MC) function controls external memory access
  • GX I/O bus manages interface to channel adapters for I/O access
• IBM z13 Core Layout

  • ISU (Instruction Sequence Unit)
  • IFB (Instruction Fetch and Branch) and ICM (Instruction Cache and Merge)
  • IDU (Instruction Decode Unit)
  • LSU (Load-Store Unit)
  • XU (Translation Unit)
  • PC (Core Pervasive Unit)
  • FXU (Fixed-Point Unit)
  • VFU (Vector and Floating-Point Units)
  • RU (Recovery Unit)
  • COP (Dedicated Co-processor)
  • L2D (2-MB L2 data cache)
  • L2I (2-MB L2 instruction cache)
• IAS Computer


  • First-generation computer using vacuum tubes for digital logic and memory
  • Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers
  • Implemented stored-program concept by John von Neumann at Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
• IAS Computer Structure


  • Main memory stores data and instructions
  • Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) operates on binary data
  • Control unit interprets and executes instructions
  • Input-output (I/O) equipment managed by the control unit
• Stored-Program Concept (Von Neumann)

  • Central Arithmetic Unit (CA) for arithmetic operations
  • Central Control (CC) for proper sequencing of operations
  • Memory (M) for storing instructions and data
  • Input (I) and Output (O) organs for sensory and motor functions
• IAS Computer Operation


  • Memory consists of 4,096 storage locations, each storing 40 binary digits (bits)
  • Control unit fetches and executes instructions from memory
  • Control unit and ALU contain registers: Memory Buffer Register (MBR), Memory Address Register (MAR), Instruction Register (IR), Instruction Buffer Register (IBR), Program Counter (PC), Accumulator (AC), Multiplier Quotient (MQ)
  • Instruction cycle consists of fetch and execute subcycles, controlled by electronic circuitry
• IAS Computer Instructions


  • Data transfer: Move data between memory and ALU registers
  • Unconditional branch: Change instruction sequence
  • Conditional branch: Decision points
  • Arithmetic: Operations performed by ALU
  • Address modify: Compute addresses in ALU
• Gates and Memory Cells

  • Fundamental components of digital computers
  • Gates implement Boolean or logical functions, controlling data flow
  • Memory Cells store one bit of data each, enabling data storage
  • Functions: Data Storage, Data Processing, Data Movement, Control
• Transistors


  • Building blocks of digital circuits used in processors, memories, and digital logic devices
  • Made of silicon or other semiconducting material capable of changing electrical state when pulsed
  • Can be conductive or non-conductive, controlling current flow based on applied voltage to the gate
• Microelectronic Chips

  • Integrated Circuits (ICs) exploit semiconductor properties to fabricate entire circuits on small silicon wafers
  • Integration of transistors, resistors, and conductors into a single chip
  • Allows for mass production of transistors simultaneously on a wafer
  • Silicon wafer divided into small areas, each containing an identical circuit pattern
  • Chips comprise numerous gates, memory cells, and input/output points
  • Packaged in housing with pins for attachment to external devices
• Evolution of Integrated Circuits

  • Initially, only a few components could be reliably manufactured together (Small-Scale Integration - SSI)
  • Over time, advancements led to increased component density on chips
  • Moore's Law - predicted doubling of transistor count on a chip every year, sustaining a rapid pace of technological advancement
• Multichip Module (MCM)


  • Developed to meet the demand for denser and faster memories, offering a compact packaging approach
  • Decrease average spacing between Integrated Circuits (ICs) in an electronic system
  • MCM: Chip package containing multiple bare chips mounted closely on a substrate, interconnected by conductors within the substrate to enhance performance and reduce noise
• Classification of MCMs by Substrate

  • MCM-L: Metal traces on stacked organic laminate sheets
  • MCM-C: Metal patterned and interconnected on co-fired ceramic layers
  • MCM-D: Vapor-deposited, patterned metal layers alternating with dielectric thin films
• MCM Architecture


  • Integrated circuits: Bare chips mounted on/in the surface of the substrate
  • Level-1 interconnections: Paths between chips within the substrate
  • Substrate: Common base providing signal interconnections and mechanical support
  • MCM package: Offers protection, heat removal, and interconnections
  • Level-2 interconnections: Interface to the printed circuit board where MCM is mounted
• Intel x86 Architecture


  • Represents the evolution of complex instruction set computers (CISCs) and incorporates design principles from mainframes and supercomputers
  • Evolution includes 8080, 8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium Series, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium 4, Core Series, Core 2
  • Maintains backward compatibility throughout architectural changes, ensuring programs written for older versions can execute on newer ones
• Embedded Systems


  • Electronics and software integrated into products, distinct from general-purpose computers
  • Tightly coupled to their environment, often imposing real-time constraints due to interactions with the external world
  • Interface with external environment through sensors and actuators, making them reactive systems
  • Human interface can range from simple flashing lights to real-time robotic vision, sometimes lacking a human interface altogether
  • May include special-purpose hardware like FPGA
• Embedded systems


  Electronics and software integrated into products, distinct from general-purpose computers like laptops or desktops
• Billions of embedded computer systems are produced annually, present in various devices ranging from cell phones and digital cameras to home appliances and automotive systems
• Virtually all electric-powered devices are expected to incorporate embedded computing systems in the near future
• Characteristics of Embedded Systems

  • Tightly coupled to their environment, often imposing real-time constraints due to interactions with the external world
  • Interface with external environment through sensors and actuators, making them reactive systems
  • Human interface can range from simple flashing lights to real-time robotic vision, sometimes lacking a human interface altogether
  • May include special-purpose hardware like FPGA or ASIC to enhance performance or reliability
  • Software typically has fixed functionality tailored to the specific application
  • Optimized for efficiency in terms of energy consumption, code size, execution time, weight, dimensions, and cost
• Similarities to General-Purpose Computers


  • Ability to field upgrade software for bug fixes, security enhancements, and additional functionality, even in fixed-function software
  • Emergence of embedded system platforms supporting a wide variety of applications, such as smartphones and smart TVs
• Internet of Things (IoT)

  The increasing interconnection of smart devices, spanning from appliances to tiny sensors
• Key aspect of IoT


  • Incorporation of short-range mobile transceivers into various gadgets, enabling communication between people and things, and between things themselves
• Billions of industrial and personal objects are interconnected via the internet, often facilitated by cloud systems
• Objects deliver sensor data, interact with their environment, and sometimes self-modify to manage larger systems like factories or cities