Canada

• UC - overview

  • Governed by a London lieutenant governor , but reliant on the tax-raising powers of a locally elected legislative assembly
  • Appointed council exercised executive power in addition to LG, these members were chosen and could be removed by LG
  • Family Compact maintained control of the council, exercising power largely for their own benefit
  • Legislative assembly of 16 that was elected by landowners, but laws had to be approved by council
  • FC unified by their loyalist tradition, devotion to the Anglican Church and reluctance to change constitution if it weakens them
• UC - landownership

  • Based on British freehold tenure
  • Most land held by the Crown and judged to be free to settlers
  • British did recognise indigenous Canadians as having claimed the land, so they were paid and treaties were signed to give Crown the land
  • 1/7 land designated as clergy reserves
  • Because of the control of the FC, Britain thought funding these lands would increase loyalty, but majority of population weren't Anglican
• UC tensions - economic

  • Lacked infrastructure and capital investment
  • Very small population to raise revenues
  • Investment in canals and roads meant government was poor
  • Instead of raising taxes, they sold land to the Canada Company
  • This decision sidestepped the assembly and denied them the opportunity to influence spending within the province
  • Turns out these funds being raised were spent on paying to salaries of the officials
• UC tensions - Family Compact

  • Calls for a 'responsible and cheap government' due to FC's influence on the system
  • Lawyer Robert Baldwin was the 'father of responsible government'
  • He wrote to Lord Glenelg, the colonial secretary, in 1836 and suggested a constitutional reform to establish responsible government where decisions decided by voting in Canada rather than London
• LC - landownership

  • He been colonised by pre-revolutionary France
  • Land was granted to a seigneur (landlord of great estate) who would then grant the land to tenants for rent
  • Tenants under the seigneurial system were protected by contracts and the relationship between them and the seigneur was overseen by state
  • 75 - 80% of rural population lived in this
• LC tensions - racial

  • Official language of the legislative assembly was English despite LC being principally French speaking
  • Their language, identity and institutions formed an important political block in the assembly
  • Influx of British loyalists from America caused racial tension
• LC tensions - Chateau Clique


  • Governors selected members of their exclusive council from the British Loyalists, who were often successful businessmen, creating an English speaking oligarchy called the CC
  • French speaking population dominated legislative assembly and were quick to oppose CC when they threatened their identity
• LC tensions - uniting the Canadas

  • 1820s saw rural stagnation and hardship for tenants of seigneurial estates
  • English businessmen elite had no hesitation in attributing the economic problems of the province to the 'backwardness' of French colonists
  • Their solution was an act in 1922 that would unite LC and UC
  • French Canadians mobilised opposition as this would of resulted in an English speaking majority
  • Idea dropped as it was deemed to not be worth the trouble
  • Led to formation of Patriotes
• LC tensions - Lord Dalhousie

  • Governor from 1820 - 1828
  • By the time he was recalled to London, the assembly were refusing to vote money for the payment of officials
  • He discontinued the elected assembly in 1827 because he refused to accept the Patriote leader as speaker of the house
  • Petition signed by 87,000 ended his governorship as London was highly sensitive to colonial unrest
• Causes of UC revolt - radical reformers

  • Led by Robert Baldwin and his father, who from 1828 had been developing their definition or responsible government and trying to present their ideas to colonial secretary to no success
  • During 1837 Rebellion, Robert was in London protesting his removal from executive council, led by William Lyon Mackenzie
  • Mackenzie ran a newspaper that had been attacked by sons of the Family Compact in 1826
  • Led to his persecution, also aided his rep as a reformer
• Causes of UC revolt - emigration into the province

  • 1830s Irish immigration gave Irish character to East Toronto and older loyalist settlements
  • Stereotype that all Irish were feckless, criminally inclined and carried disease
  • Poor immigrants assisted by Ops Township Scheme with temporary shelters and cheep supplies
  • Reforms objected this due to lack of consultation with legislative assembly
  • Family Compact objected as they threatened status quo
  • Immigration led to cholera epidemics of 1832 and 1834
• Causes of UC revolt - actions of the lieutenant governor Colborne

  • Bypassed the legislative assembly by using tax revenues to pay official's salaries
  • Set up a classic English preparatory school using public funding
  • Allocated income reserves to support 44 Anglican parishes across the province in an attempt to establish firmer Church presence
  • Led to his removal from his political position and his appointment as military commander-in-chief
• Causes of UC revolt - actions of the lieutenant governor Head

  • Had no previous colonial experience
  • Initially invited some moderates onto the executive committee
  • But then forced them out from office when they complained that they had not been consulted for issues
  • Prompted the 1836 election, in which he successfully removed the Reformers from the legislative assembly
  • Led to rebellion as now Reformers had no over choice to influence decisions
• Causes of UC revolt - the 1836 election 


  • Introduced a law extending the session of the legislative so that a election wouldn't happen when King William IV died
  • Introduced a law preventing members of the legislative from serving as executive councillors, an obvious attempt to retain full control from the Family Compact
  • Under Mackenzie's leadership, Reformers saw rebellion as the only way to regain influence in decisions
• Events of UC revolt - 1

  • Dec 1837 - following news of Patriote leader's arrest in LC, M gathers 1000 American farmers for 4 days at Montgomery's tavern on Yonge Street in Toronto, with the general plan to attack FC property
  • 5 Dec - rebels march south on Yonge Street and exchange gunfire with small loyalist group, majority of rebels flee
  • 8 Dec - remaining rebels flee after loyalists reinforcements arrive on steamboat, there was a smaller unsuccessful confrontation in Brantford
• Events of UC revolt - 2

  • M and other rebels flee to Navy Island in the Niagara River, where he declared a provisional state
  • Population grows to 600 with promises of 300 acres of land
  • Their supply ship, the American steamer Caroline, is burned down
  • 13 Jan 1838 - M flees Island under militia bombardment
  • He's captured by US military and sentenced to 18 months for violating neutrality laws
• Results of UC revolt

  • Rebels and sympathisers left the province for America
  • Those who stayed were arrested and 2 were hanged
  • Loyalty to Britain increased
  • Britain certain that revolt was due to actions of FC over a course of many years and that the governance must change
  • Lord Durham dispatched to find a solution
• Causes of LC revolt - Papineau

  • Under his leadership, the assembly refused to accept any of the compromises offered by the British regarding control of finances in the province and he was against the Civil List to pay the salaries of officials
  • Influenced by the more radical mood of the times
  • Feb 1834 - 92 Resolutions published by the Patriotes demanding constitutional change, including elective councils and seeking to protect French Canadian identity
• Causes of LC revolt - social issues

  • Immigrants brought a cholera outbreak in 1832
  • Military firing on a crowd in 1832 election and 2 men were shot
  • By 1834, the more radical wing of the Patriot Party was emerging as a stronger voice in the assembly and in the province as a whole
• Causes of LC revolt - economic

  • British struggling to pay the salaries of officials due to the assembly, led by Papineau, was denying their proposals for shared economic control of the province
  • Habitants suffered agricultural hardship through the 1830s
• Causes of LC revolt - the Gosford mission

  • Commission of inquiry led by Lord Gosford arrives in Canada in 1835
  • Sir Francis Head disclosed the full terms of the inquiry to the assembly in Jan 1836
  • Caused outrage as it showed the British had no intention of engaging in the kind of constitutional reform that the Patriotes wanted
  • 10 Russell Resolutions passed by House of Commons on 6 March 1937
  • This rejected constitutional reform and allowed the governor to use public funds without assembly's consent
  • Led to outrage, G responded by increasing military and closing banks on 18 May
• Events of LC revolt - 1

  • Sept - Oct 1837 - Society of the Sons of Liberty have a meeting of 500 in Montreal
  • 26 Oct - Confederation of the Six Countries meet at St-Charles, Papineau speaks against the rebellion but Nelson declares 'the time has come to melt our spoons into bullets' and becomes new voice of the Patriotes
  • 6 Nov - street fight between the Society and the British destroys the offices of a pro-British newspaper called The Vindicator
  • 10 Nov - British cavalry and Patriote militia exchange shots in Montreal
• Events of LC revolt - 2

  • 16 Nov - rebels ambush military band sent to arrest Patriote leaders, Gosford warrants arrest of the leaders on the charge of treason
  • 23 Nov - surprise victory for Patriotes at the village of St Denis
  • 25 Nov - British general Wetherall defeats Patriote forces at St-Charles
  • 29 Nov - Wetherall enters Montreal with 30 prisoners
  • 5 Dec - martial law declared
  • 14 Dec - 100 Patriotes shot while fleeing from burning church in St Eustache
• Events of LC revolt - 3

  • December 1837 - January 1838 - Gosford controls situation and Patriotes are either prisoners or have fled to America
  • British burn houses of known Patriotes and those believed to have sheltered them
  • Nov 1838 - Durham's departure is followed by raids along the border by exiled Patriotes, aided by Americans acting independently of their government in a 'Second Rebellion'
  • Raids are unsuccessful
• Results of LC revolt

  • 500 Patriotes in Montreal jails
  • 10 Feb 1838 - British passed an act suspending the 1791 Constitution of LC and Gosford was empowered to run province with special appointed members
  • 27 April 1838 - he revokes martial law in Montreal
  • London now accepted that a new constitutional settlement must be found for the province but were aware of the needs of British settlers
• Lord Durham as an aristocrat

  • Pranced through the streets on his arrival dressed in full silver and white regalia
  • Visitors to the governor's residence were treated to gold and silver plates and served vintage champaign
  • Nicknamed 'Radical Jack' and 'Jog Along Jack' after saying a man might jog along very comfortably on £40,000 a year
  • Was one of the last Whig grandees
• Lord Durham as high commissioner

  • His report was the first official definition of responsible self-government in British politics
  • Stabilised political situation in the short term
  • Popular due to his fierce military response to revolts
  • Publicly discounted the views of those who had previous power
  • Removed before he had an opportunity to disappoint his followers
• Lord Durham's early career

  • Nicknamed 'Radical Jack' due to his avocation of utilising whatever means necessary to pass the Reform Act
  • Initially turned down opportunity to help Canada but changed his mind after the revolts and a personal appeal from the queen
  • Faced criticism for choosing Wakefield as an advisor as he had served 3 years for an attempted abduction of a 15-year-old from boarding school
  • Also criticised for choosing Turton, as his wife divorced him for cheating with her sister
• Lord Durham's time in Canada

  • Was only there for 4.5 months before he resigned
  • Published his report on 11 February 1839
  • Choice of advisors led to lack of support from Melbourne government, meant he was forced to resign
  • Established Canada's first police force
  • Made good relations with USA over the matter of rebels and troublemakers seeking re-entry
  • Freed most political prisoners
• Lord Durham's resignation

  • Resigned because he was not prepared to submit to censure from London over his actions in sending the political prisoners to Bermuda
  • Also resigned because he was annoyed with Melbourne's criticisms of his choice of advisors when he believed he had free reign over the matter
• Influence of Wakefield and Buller on the Durham Report

  • 'Wakefield thought it, Buller wrote and Durham signed' - Lord Brougham
  • Both were involved in interviewing a wide spectrum of Canadian society, so they served as a conduit for ideas, some of which found their way into the final report
• Influence of Buller on Durham Report


  • Stayed behind in Canada to finish work of committees and draft report
  • Worked on final draft in London with Durham
  • Official commissioner over crown lands
  • Wakefield did more work
• Influence of Wakefield on the Durham Report


  • Unofficially supported Buller as commissioner of crown lands
  • Concluded that the system of free land grants was a core issue and developed the theory of systematic colonisation
  • Unpaid advisor and secretary to Durham and Buller
  • Strong advocate for union of the provinces
• Content of the Durham Report

  • The unification of the Canadas - saw the majority of issues in LC as fault of the French Canadians and that the best way to fix this was to turn them into the minority
  • Quebec Act - would grant freedom to French Canadians by improving the economic position of the habitants
  • Responsible Self Government - legislative assembly would be elected but the majority party would hold power through cabinet government. The governor of the provenance would therefore be a titular figure only
• Results of the Durham Report

  • United Canadas idea introduced to parliament in May 1839
  • UC voted cheerfully for the union due to their debt being shared and knowledge that British would be the majority
  • The suspension of LC assembly since 1838 allowed for the acceptance of the union despite opposition
  • Act of Union proclaimed on 10th February 1841 in Montreal
• Long-term effects of the Durham Report

  • Self Government to all Canadian colonies from 1848 - 1855
  • Defined Self Government which was a concept implemented in other colonies like Australia
  • Intellectual basis for Britain and it's colonies for next 20 years
• Criticisms of the Durham Report

  • Did not mention indigenous population in land distribution
  • Report not fully implemented until 1847
  • Durham himself resigned after only 4.5 months in office
  • Issues of emigration and health care not addressed
  • Radical voices like Mackenzie and Papineau were ignored
  • Only applied to white settler colonies and not Jamaica or India
  • Treatment of French Canadians and absorption of LC with the intention of ridding their culture