chapter 2 skill acq

• skill = a learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both
• characteristics of a skill:

  Aesthetically pleasing

  Consistent

  Efficient

  Fluent

  Accurate

  Controlled

  Economical
• open - closed continua


  open skill = skill performed in an unpredictable environment, performer must make decisions as the skill is in progress

  closed skill = skill performed in a predictable environment, few decisions as environment is predictable and repeatable
• gross - fine continua

  gross skill = skill that uses large muscle groups, such as a rugby tackle which needs the shoulder and quad muscles with lots of muscle fibres

  fine skill = skill that uses smaller muscle groups, intricate skills that need fine motor control such as pistol shooting
• self paced - externally paced continua

  self paced = when the performer controls the start and the speed of the skill, e.g when taking a penalty the player picks when to start and how hard and where to shoot

  externally paced = when the performer has no control over the start and the speed of the skill, e.g in regatta the sailor must react to the speed of the wind
• discrete skill


  skill that has a clear beginning and a clear end, e.g a tennis serve where the service action is clearly identified
• continuous skill


  no clear beginning and end and the end of one sub-routine is often the start of the next part, e.g in cycling the action of pedalling can be repeated continuously until they stop
• serial skill


  a skill that contains several discrete skills in order to make a more integrated move such as in a gymnastics routine, where each skill can be practiced individually and put together to form the completed routine, or in triple jump
• high organisation - low organisation continua

  low organisation = skill that is easily broken down into its sub-routines, e.g a swim stroke as the arm action, leg action and body position can be identified

  high organisation = skill that is not easily broken down into its sub-routines, e.g in volleyball the action is very quick and sub-routines merge
• simple - complex continua


  simple = skill that requires few decisions when being performed, e.g a forward roll in gymnastics

  complex = skill that requires decision making using lots of information when performed, e.g a dribble in hockey where they need to take into account position of others, concentrating on the ball and control of the stick
• situation in which the skill is performed in should be taken into account since the skill can change in a different environment
• transfer of learning


  effect of the learning and performance of one skill on the learning and performance of another
• positive transfer of learning


  when the learning of one skill helps or aids the learning of another, tends to happen when the actions of the 2 skills are similar, such as the overarm volleyball serve and the tennis serve, or a basketball pass and a netball pass
• negative transfer of learning


  when the learning of one skill hinders the learning of another, tends to happen when the environment is similar and the familiarity may cause confusion, such as a badminton serve that requires the whole arm and a badminton serve that only requires the wrist
• zero transfer of learning

  when the learning of one skill has no impact on the learning of another, e.g the swimming arm action and the foot placement in rock climbing have nothing in common
• bilateral transfer of learning


  when the learning of one skill is passed across the body from limb to limb, such as a right-footed footballer would be encouraged to use their left foot also
• ensuring positive transfer

  • making sure training is realistic
  • make sure one skill is well learned before advancing
  • reward and reinforce players for correct adaptations
• practice should be varied to account for the changes the player might encounter, skill classification should determine the best type of practice to use and the coach should consider the type of skill before deciding how to practice it
• whole practice


  practising the skill in its entirety, promotes understanding, establishes links between sub-routines and creates fluency, e.g practising a golf swing by an experienced player because it is discrete, fast and hard to break down and the player may only need fine-tuning
• when should a coach use whole practice:

  • skill is fast, ballistic and discrete such as a tennis serve
  • skill is highly organised and cannot be easily broken down into parts
  • skill is simple and does not require much thought
  • kineasthesis of the whole task required
  • performer in autonomous stage of learning, able to cope with demand
  • links between sub-routines must be maintained e.g trampolining
• advantages of whole practice

  1. gives a feel for the whole skill and the links between each part
  2. helps create specific images that can be stored as a motor programme in the long term memory, useful when it needs to be recalled
  3. more realistic as it helps to produce effect of positive transfer between skills learned in training and in performance
  4. helps make skill consistent, keep performer in good habits and allow them to perform skill almost automatically
• disadvantages of whole practice

  1. may place unnecessary demands on performer who may not be able to cope with all the aspects of the skill at once
  2. fatigue if the whole task is attempted without a break
  3. too much information for the performer to process
• whole-part-whole practice


  assessing the skill, identifying a weakness to practise, then putting the skill back together, e.g an experienced volleyball player has an issue with the spike, the whole action is looked at, then a specific problem with the arm action is identified and corrected, can be used when beginner is doing a complex task and needs to concentrate on improving each part before making progress
• in whole-part-whole, the skill is not broken up too much so the links between sub-routines can be maintained, the coach could even highlight a specific weakness, isolate it and then correct it
• advantages of whole-part-whole

  1. provide motivation when a long time weakness is corrected
  2. provides immediate feedback and corrects errors
  3. allows full skill to be integrated and fluent as each part is corrected
  4. maintains kineasthesis and transitions are smooth
• disadvantages of whole-part-whole

  1. may produce negative transfer effects unless the coach integrates the part back into the whole during the same session
  2. once the part is isolated it should be linked back to the whole as soon as possible so the correct whole action can be learned when all is correct
  3. more time consuming
• progressive part practice / chaining

  practising the first part of the skill then adding parts gradually, used for serial skills when maintaining order is important and links between sub-routines need to be made, e.g first part of a dance routine is taught , then the second and so on until complete, also for dangerous skills such as routines on a trampoline
• advantages of progressive part practice

  1. useful when skill is low-organised as each part is clear
  2. useful for complex skills as it can take pressure off performer
  3. learner allowed to focuses on one aspect of task and correct specifics
  4. rest allowed so fatigue reduced
  5. builds initial understanding and may improve confidence
  6. success gradually achieved which improves motivation
• disadvantages of progressive part practice

  1. can be time consuming
  2. neglects feel of the whole task
  3. ignores links between sub-routines
  4. danger of negative transfer if the first part is not learned well
• massed practice


  no rest intervals during the practice session, used when skill is discrete, simple, and the environment is closed, unlikely to be changes so numerous repetitions can be undertaken
• advantages of massed practice

  1. promotes fitness so that performer can cope with demands of the task
  2. makes skill automatic so fixed responses become habitual and player can repeat skill consistently
  3. motor programmes can be stored easily so they can be recalled in the future
  4. efficient use of coach and player time
• disadvantages of massed practice

  1. produce fatigue especially if performer lacks fitness
  2. danger of negative transfer unless coach makes practice conditions similar to the real game
  3. demands on player are high so practice should be kept simple
  4. performer may lose motivation to keep doing repeated action
• distributed practice


  rest intervals are given during the practice session, should be used when skill is continuous and the performer may need a break, could be used when skill practice is changed due to skill being open and unpredictable and the rest intervals are used to explain changes or additions to the skill
• advantages of distributed practice

  1. takes pressure off performer and allows recovery after a tough session
  2. reduces onset of fatigue
  3. good for beginners as it allows controlled progress as feedback can be given during the rest interval
  4. performer can used mental practice during the break
  5. may offer motivation when praise is given during rest interval
  6. safe way of practising more dangerous activities
• disadvantages of distributed practice

  1. time consuming and should not be used when the session is tight and requires fast progress
  2. not useful for expert players who want to over-learn their skill
  3. danger of negative transfer if coach fails to integrate practice session
• varied practice


  changing the practice type and the practice drills, helps players to learn how to adapt to changes in their environment, should be used when the skill is open and the environment is unpredictable, likely to be changes in the sporting environment when the skill is performed so the session should replicate these conditions
• advantages of varied practice

  1. allows players to adapt their skills to changing environments and is appropriate for open skills
  2. variety of practice prevents boredom and increases motivation
  3. helps build sub-routines or parts of the skills
  4. helps develop a method of adapting existing skills from the memory store = schema
• disadvantages of varied practice

  1. time consuming
  2. danger of negative transfer unless changing drills are integrated into the aims of the session
  3. may place unnecessary demands on the player if they are given too much to focus on
  4. danger of fatigue
• mental practice


  going over the skill in the mind without movement, addition to physical practice to aid performance, may be used as part of warm-up for mental preparation, or may mentally rehearse a skill or set play before a match
• advantages of mental practice

  1. improves confidence
  2. lowers anxiety
  3. stimulates muscle receptors so player is better prepared
  4. reaction times increase
  5. develops cognitive ability and can be done when injured