globalisation

• China was under state control from 1949-1970s. on the outskirts of the global economy and it experienced famines and high levels of poverty.

  1978 - radical economic and political reforms made it more competitive in the global economy. 'Open Door Policy'
• 4 SEZs were established along the coast of China to encouraged foreign companies to set up there. TNCs like Apple and Dell outsourced jobs to China Shenzhen Special Economic Zone.

  China soon became the 'factory of the world', especially in consumer electronics
• The FDI from the foreign companies helped the Chinese economy grow rapidly

  In 2019, China received US$187 billion in FDI and 27% of their GDP came from manufacturing
• North Korea was established in 1948, in which is has pursued an isolationist, socialist regime

  this means that they are switched off from globalisation as connections with other countries are very restricted
• North Korea's economy is based on an ideology of self-sufficiency, which concentrated on the production of goods on the immediate needs of its citizens rather than on making trade connections with other countries

  North Korea has limited physical communication connections with other countries (internet cabling) in an attempt to restrict people's exposure to information and ideas from overseas
• North Korea has allowed some external influences:

  since a period of famine and rapid economic downturn in the 1990s. they have appealed for and accepted international aid from capitalist economies - USA and South Korea

  the two Korean countries have competed together in a unified team in some sporting events - ice hockey at 2017 winter olympics

  2018 - North Korea leader Kim Jong-Un met Donald Trump at a summit Singapore, where they committed to a partial denuclearisation of North Korea and the lifting of some sanctions
• China's large population offered an abundant supply of cheaper, often well-educated labour to the global manufacturing sector. this lowered production costs for businesses that had been previously used labour in Europe or the USA.

  initially, working conditions in these factories were often very poor and dangerous. due to their regular and attractive wages, jobs in factories caused large scale rural-to-urban migration. These migrants sought new jobs in manufacturing hubs like Shenzhen
• in the 1980s, Chinese goods tended to be cheap to produce and became highly competitive in the global market. China became known for producing 'throwaway' consumables

  as more FDI flowed into China. it was able to invest in greater industrial infrastructure (coal-fired power stations and railways) and higher-level training for workers. this made China an attractive manufacturing destination for high-order goods such as consumer electronics, Major brands began to set up factories in China to make use of these facilities and the county's workforce
• increased FDI led to an improvement in Chinese working conditions, though some labour practices (such as asking people to work more than the legal maximum number of hours) have been criticised by human rights campaigners
• in the late 2000s, China started to manufacture home-grown products to rival other large international brands, such as Huawei mobile phones

  the global shift. has also created a growing middle class in China who have become an important global market for the goods now produced there
• Indian cities have attracted large companies, such as Barclays, wishing to outsource the labour needed to run their back-office operations or technical call centres

  In 1990, a series of three technological parks were set up on the edge of the city of Bangalore. These hubs had low set-up rates as a means of encouraging technology firms to locate there
• India has a large, youthful population and a rapidly growing number of graduates (9% of all 25-year-olds in 2011 had a degree). Many of these graduates have qualifications in IT and engineering, making them an especially attractive workforce to some companies
• India has the second largest English speaking population in the world and these language skills enable communication with English-speaking countries

  call centre work can be desirable to Indians as it often earns three times more than the average income
• Mumbai has witnessed a rapid rural-to-urban migration. between 1950 and 2020, the population has increased by more than 560% to 20.4million, migrants continue to come from all over India to seek employment opportunities in Mumbai. the main sources of migrants are the states of Uttar Pradesh in the north of the country, Karnataka in the south and Gujarat in the north west
• Rural-to-urban migration in Mumbai has created one of the largest slums in the world. Dharavi, which is occupies 2km^2 space in the heart of the city, is estimated to be home to over 1million people. Informal employment, e.g. plastic recycling, thrives in the slum. there are 15000 single-room workshops which are estimated to create and annual turnover of US$1billion
• conditions within the slum are very poor open defecation may occur due to limited access to sewage systems. the limited availability of clean drinking water means diseases such as dysentery are common. as the price of land in Mumbai rises, there is increased pressure on city officials to develop Dharavi for wealthier residents
• wealthy Russian oligarchs have brought properties and invested in businesses in London, which benefits the UK by contributing to the economy. In 2022 around 100 properties in London were owned by Russians believed to be involved in corruption. collectively, these properties are worth more than £1.1billion
• owning UK property gave Russian elites access to UK bank accounts and private schools, which are seen as highly desirable. These investments, among other factors, have led to price inflations and made living in some parts of London (Belgravia) unaffordable to most people born in the city. sanctions placed on oligarchs following Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022 have aimed to lessen their influence in London
• in Qatar, Indian migrant labour has been used to build tourism and recreation facilities, infrastructure projects and the stadia required to host the 2022 Football World Cup. migrants are also employed as domestic servants
• there are ip to 700000 Indian people working in Qatar. workers often work for long hours in hot and difficult conditions. there's been a high death rate among workers building World Cup facilities. workers often send their wages home as remittance payments
• Asian diets traditionally consist of high levels of vegetables and fish and low levels of meat. the spread of western culture (centred around more processed and fast food), along with a steady rise in the number of people in middle-and-high-income groups, have seen Asian people consume larger amounts of red meat and sugar. this has led to increased levels of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. in 1990, 0.9% of adults in South East Asia were considered obese compared to 4.3% in 2015
• agricultural land in Asia is increasingly being used for raising livestock rather than growing crops for human consumption - this is less efficient for the amount of food produced, this change in land use has also accelerated carbon dioxide and methane emissions and contributed to changing global climate
• the Paralympic Games is an example of how a global culture can help bring equality to marginalised people, and particularly those from developed and emerging economies. since the 1980s, participants and followers of parasports have increased. the 2020 games had the highest number of parasports and athletes to date (more than 4400 participants compared to just over 3000 in 1988)
• increased media coverage of the Paralympic has led to some athletes becoming household names - this helps to draw more attention to the games and will inspire more people to take part. although some countries lag behind others in removing the stigmas around disability, the Paralympic Games are seen as a catalyst for change
• in Papua New Guinea, there were originally thousands of cultural groups who practised individual languages and traditions, with successive waves of colonialism by British, german and Australian regimes, the native tribal system was broken
• missionaries from different christian denominations worked in Papua New Guinea to bring different tribes together under new religious laws and customs. these aimed to suppress behaviours that were seen as animalistic (cannibalism for ritualistic purposes). they also promoted living in nuclear families rather than other alternatives live sex-segregated housing

  today, there are thought to be only 312 tribal groups remaining as intermarriage and migration have caused some tribal extinction
• nationalist political parties such as the National Rally (formerly the National Front) in France and the Freedom Party of Austria have become more popular in Europe, they have been making gains in elections and are increasingly obtaining representation in national parliaments, these parties favour nationalism over globalism and, in some cases, focus on national independence.
• Nationalist political parties reject the idea that multiculturalism can bring positive outcomes to a country, and call for a drastic reduction in immigration, these parties gain much of their support from people in lower-income groups who feel they are increasingly being oppressed and marginalised due to international migration
• there have also been a rise in more extreme groups that support neo-fascism - an authoritarian, xenophobic movement which promotes ideas of racial supremacy. some believe that the campaign messages of nationalist and neo-fascist parties are responsible for the rise in reported racial and religious hate crime over recent years
• with rising demands on limited water supplies, tensions can arise between that share a transboundary water resource. the Mekong River runs through 6 countries - China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia, impacting over 300 million people. as of 2020, those countries (not Myanmar) have commissioned plans to build over 200 dams on the river and its tributaries for irrigation, flood control and production of hydroelectricity. Cambodia and Vietnam, which hist the lower course of the river, are concerned as they're likely to receive much lower flow rates if the planned dams go ahead
• a set of international guidelines known as the 'Helsinki Rules' can help to manage these tensions. though not enforced in law, these rules state that all countries that border a water resource should have an equal share in it and have equal responsibility to protect in from pollution. all structural changes, such as dams, need to be agreed by all countries before they go ahed, the 1995 Mekong Agreement, based on these principles, was signed by all countries except China
• China was ranked 177th due to its strict censorship of media content. Chinese authorities have used censorship to control the population, promote the Communist state and limit global western influences. journalists can be labelled as dissidents and imprisoned for promoting any anti-communist message, most cont from overseas in heavily monitored and much of the mass media produces within China is state-owned
• the internet proved to be a challenge for Chinese censors. a strict 'firewall' is in place which blocks a large volume of international web content, though many people, especially the younger generations, have found ways to get around this. Google withdrew its services from China in 2010 after the state repeatedly blocked users from viewing content that Google felt was in the best interest of the Chinese people
• in the past, Japan has enforced one if the strictest immigration policies in the world. until 2019, Japanese companies:

  could not employ foreign manual labourers

  required very particular and high-level qualifications for professional labourers

  could not be owned by non-Japanese (and one couldn't migrate to Japan to become an entrepreneur)
• the criteria for asylum applications into Japan were very strict, e.g. in 2016, only 28 out of 10901 applications were approved

  the Japanese attitude to migrants has not been hostile but instead places Japanese nationals first. the Japanese concept on minzoku (one ethnicity) remains a strong part of Japanese culture and migrants to Japan, even from a young age, may never be considered truly Japanese
• in 2019, the Japanese Immigration Control and Refugee Act began to soften some restrictions and admit foreign manual labourers for up to a maximum of 5 years each. measure have been put in place to speed up asylum applications and chage the approval criteria. this was largely in response to the realisation that Japan's aging population was unable to fill gaps in the labour market, so younger workers from overseas were needed
• some gorups of indigenous people wish to reject the manner in which TNCs control their ways of life and their land. at the same time, these groups make see to take economic advantage of the resources found in their ancestral lands in a sustainable and self-governed way
• the First Nations consists of a collective of more than 630 indigenous groups working to self-govern and regain control of their ancestral land across Canada. they are opposed to the large oil, gas and timber companies looking to capitalise on the resources found there.
• the First Nations are concerned that:

  the exploitation of resources will threaten traditional ways of life (e.g. the artisan salmon fishing methods of the Coast Salish people) and destroy vulnerable natural habitats - much of which are part of national reserves

  oil and gas workers may bring new behaviour (drinking alcohol) into indigenous communities that is not beneficial
• the First Nations

  protest, raise awareness and be a strong voice in public meetings

  set up companies on their land to provide back-office and consultation services for large oil, gas and timber companies in order to steer the way that the land is used and the way it is protected

  set up schools and community centres to ensure that languages and traditional skills and cultures are kept alive

  teach tourists about different cultures

  run festivals to celebrate the connection different groups have with their land